Words
travel with people and reach different shores and often strangely enter into
world lexicons, as a result of their common usage in daily activities by
concerned class of people. Travelogues
and trade communications spread their usage.
A layman may fail to understand their meaning and importance. Sometimes, their meanings – once traceable in
their origins – are mixed up to such an extent that they are far moved away
from their source. Confusion leads to a
lot of discussions for finding out what that expression really means.
Sayer(a) or Sayir(a)
We
have discussed some antiquarian words, say Al,
Amara, Bhandashale or Bankshal (in
European corrupted parlance), Bankarakatte,
Chakan, Gadang, Jambal, Jangar or Jangal,
Kāle, etc.
Sayer(a) or Sayir(a)
is one more addition to the array of such antiquarian words. It was a word,
pestering Europeans in land and marine trade during pre-colonial and colonial era.
Advent of this word in European languages created confusion to young European
officers serving in India on their new postings. It has been found to be a
common surname world over with highest incidence in Turkey.
Etymology
Note
the situation, described in Para one: it is aptly applicable to the word:
‘Sayer’ (ಸಾಯರ್), Sayira (ಸಾಯಿರ) or syre (ಸೈರ್). It is supposed to have originated from the Arabic word
saa’ir : but it has the primary
meaning of ‘remainder’ in Arabic. By and
large, we have reason to believe that it is an Indian word since it was widely
used in India during ancient marine trade as well as inland trade. We infer
that the word has bearing on the origin of related words like savari, sarthavaha, sanchara, pravasa; saraku, saramjambu and sarabarayi.
This
was a commercial term, known in the trade world of yore. It means a tax or customs imposed on imports
and exports by competent authority at territorial borders.
Saysira
& Sayira in Tulu:
The
phrase ‘Aruve Saysira’ during the
history used to mean marine department and sea customs. ‘Aruve
Sayira Katte’ stands for ‘Customs House’ (Tulu Lexicon, p.162; Post-334: Secret of Ambagilu). In Tulu, it is
also known as ‘Sunkada Katte’. Katte
is a place at regional borders or market area to collect passage tax or toll (sunka= seema shulka, akin to present day ‘octroi duty’) for goods and
services. ‘Sukka’ means Customs in Pali/Prakrit. We presume, Place names
‘Saukuru’ near Basrur in Kundapura (Udupi District) and Sukkur in Sindh (now in
Pakistan) suggest existence of custom houses there in ancient time.
We
know, ‘ira’ means ‘water or river’. Naturally, such tax collection centres are
found at river estuaries or sea ports (pattanas), hinter-land cities
(Nagire>Nagara and Puras). Mark the
word element ‘Naga’, which means both boat and ornaments of precious metals and
gems, besides ‘high place like mountain’.
Mark
the behavioral pattern (barring exceptions) of yester year-tax/duty collectors!
There is a wise saying in Tulu about
such Kattes. ‘ಸುಂಕದಾಯ ಕೈತಲ್ ಸುಖ-ದುಃಖದಾನೆ? (Sunkadaaya
kaital sukha dukkha daane?. It means: What is the use of discussing about our
weal or woe before a tax collector?). He goes by the rules and may not bend it
after hearing the plight of goods-carrier or passenger. Forget not, this saying was coined when
people were generally truthful and faithful!
Sair (सैर) in Hindi:
It means: Outing, trip or pleasure trip, excursion, tour,
jaunt, spin, run, ramble, sortie. So
‘Sair Karna’ (सैर करना) means visiting. (Source:
Pustak.org or dict.hinkhoj).
Sairandhri (सैरंध्रि) = Visiting Maid servant.
It also means voyager or traveler. Sairgaha(सैरगहा) means a resort.
Sarthavaha
It
has many shades of meaning, viz.: (1) A group of pilgrims on pilgrimages. (2) A
group of merchants or traders moving together with their valuable produce or
goods (Sarth) to deal in far-away
markets. The journey is undertaken with
protection of a leader or conductor, who is called as ‘Sarthavaha’, being himself a merchant in a particular trade or
profession. He is assisted by well-coordinated team of specialists, as
described elsewhere in this article.
Meanings
in European Vocabulary
Quoting
several sources, Hobson-Jobson Dictionary offers explanations. The word
Sayer/Syre, is used for taxation and imposts except land revenue on several
items of taxation. It is a Hindi word
derived from Arabic word saa’ir. With
the help of Sir H. Waterfield of India Office, the authors tried to find out
‘transitions’ of meaning in Arabic words. They say, “The obscurity attached to
the word ‘sayer’ in this sense was especially great.”
It
quotes again Wislon s.v.: “In its original purport the word signifies moving,
waking, or the whole, the remainder; from the latter it came to denote the
remaining, or all other, sources of revenue accruing to the Government in
addition to the land-tax”.
Sir
C. Trevelyan says in one passage of his book (not reproduced by us) that the
Arabic word has “the same meaning as ‘miscellaneous’. During rule of East India Company, this was
an Accounting Head, signifying revenue collection by means of duties, license
fees, services, etc. other than Excise, Land Revenue.
Both
the explanations for ‘remainder’ and ‘miscellaneous’ were not considered
correct by the compilers.
The
term Sayer in the 18th Century was applied to a variety of inland imposts, but
especially to local and arbitrary charges levied by zamindars and other
individuals, with a show of authority, on all goods passing through their
estates by land or water, or sold at markets (Bazar, haut, gunge) established
by them, charges which formed in the aggregate an enormous burden upon the
trade of the country.
The
Dictionary brings home the fact that in “saa’ir two old semitic terms have
coalesced in sound though coming from different roots, viz. (in Arabic) sair,
producing sa’ir, walking, current’, and saa’r, producing saa’ir, ‘remainder’,
the latter being a form of the same word that we have in the Biblical
Shear-jashub, ‘the remnant shall remain’ (Isaiah, vii.3). The authors conceived that the true sense of
the Indian term was ‘current or customary charges’; an idea that lies at the
root of sundry terms of the same kind in various languages, including our own
(British) customs, as well as the ‘dustoory’
which is so familiar in India”.
The
Indian Vocabulary (1788) describes: Sairjat
as “All kinds of taxation besides the land-rent” and Sair as “any place or office appointed for the collection of duties
or customs.” Such Sayer or Sayir centres were functioning in Presidencies of
Bengal, Madras and Bombay under the British before superseding the East India
Company by Queen of England Victoria. After the 1857 rising of Indian natives,
India came under the yoke of British Empire and present day custom houses came
into being.
Trading
History
Marine
trade in India has a hoary past, say from Sindhu Civilization or earlier, in
which Sarthavahas played an important
part. There is some mention of it in Vedas. Later on, we find mention of it in
Jain and Buddhist literature. Examples of contacts with Western and Eastern
coasts are available in Indian Classics. Researched materials are documented in
modern books on subjects like social, geographical, political, religious and
trade and travel. Foreign travelers and geographers’ books also throw light on
contacts with continents. We have proof of earliest explorers and travelers as
cited in Bible and Rigveda. King Soloman
(c. 900 BC) got built boats with the help of his friend Hiran, King of Phoenix,
who loaned his seamen to run the fleet of Soloman. There were marine trades between Red Sea
Ports and Port at Mediterranean. He also
traded with Tharsish (South Eastern Spain) and Ophr at western coast of
Africa. Carthage was a sea power in the
Western mediterrean upto its downfall after the disastrous war with Rome.
Pharoah
Necho II of Egypt (around c. 700 BC) was the initiator of cutting a navigable
canal from Nile to Red Sea, which was intended to facilitate trade between
Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. He
stopped work on the fear of attack from Babylonians and other nations around
Mediterranean sea.
Navigable
rivers helped international trade. Internal trade was by road and through
rivers. Nau or yanapatra (boat/ship) patha
(route) is known as nadi patha (river route), kulya
patha (artificial waterway or canal route) and vari patha (sea route). Sea
route, in turn, is known as coastal route (kula
patha) and overseas route (samyana
patha).
Nishkas (necklace of coins, not necessarily a numistic
money), hiranya pindas (buttons of
gold, i.e. bullion beaten, roundish) and manas
were considered weight and value but not gold coins. Panis
were boat people, hated by Vedic people for their miserliness. They used to
steal cattle of Aryans. Cattle or cattle
horn were considered as wealth (dhan).
It was a means of exchange on a barter system of that age when symbol of money,
i.e. currency coin (Roopa), was not
in vogue.
The
Rigveda mentions ninety navigable rivers.
Important routes are: (1) Ganges-Mahodhadhi (Bay of Bengal), (2)
Brahmaputra-Bay of Bengal), (3) Mahanadi-Bay of Bengal, (4) Godavari-Bay of
Bengal, (5) Krishnā-Bay of Bengal, (6) Kaveri-Bay of Bengal, (7) Indus
(Sindhu)-Ratnakara (Arabian Sea), (8) Narmada-Ratnakara (Arabian Sea), (9)
Euphrates-Persian Gulf river route, (10) Nile-Mediterrean river route, and (11)
Huang Ho-Pacific Ocean route. River and
sea routes provided facilities to people of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and other
important commercial cities of the region in circa 3000 BC.
Traditional
routes paved way to well-laid out roads, connecting Uttarapatha (Northern India) to Dakshinapatha
(Southern India) and Poorvanta
(Eastern end) to Aparanta (Western
end) and came to be known as silk route.
These roads have lanes catering to pedestrians, bullock carts, horse,
camel or elephant riders and horse-driven cars (Raths).
System of Sarthavahas:
Caravan
of merchants or the leader of caravan traders, is guided by a sthalaniyamaka (land guide/pilot). Head
merchant or transit corporation head (Sarthavaha)
has had to provide for food supplies required more than sufficient for the long
journey. He engages ‘Bharavahas’, i.e. menial labourers for
manual loading and unloading and traffic section staff. These labourers, mostly
slaves as is vogue in those days, settled down at various places with their
masters. Head traffic staff is called ‘Odariya’. They work under the
supervision of Sthalaniyamaka, who
lies on mattress on the open wagon on the vanguard of the caravan and keeps
watchful eye on the direction, without batting his eyelids. If he sleeps and if animals turn back, the
journey would take longer time before correcting course, resulting in depletion
of food supplies (Such eventualities were narrated in Jataka stories). Next, he is
assisted by vehicle engineering staff, headed by a ‘Bhandi (Nayak)’, who is
the supervisor-in-charge of carts and wagons, pack of animals, litters, horses,
elephants, buffaloes, bullocks, etc. Security branch of Sartha had a roadways
engineering department which ensured road safety by sending engineering staff
in advance to checkup road conditions and to have knowledge of other dangers
from men and beast while crossing the forest areas.
‘Shreni’ is the general term for guild of
traders. It is customary to form guilds
for each professionalized trades in those days. Epigraphic-evidence shows that
guilds not only minted and issued coins and seals but also maintained their own
militia, which was known as ‘Shrenibala’
according to Kalachurya inscription.
Indus
valley civilization (of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa people) was ruled by
cosmopolitan merchant class of Meluha – both Avaidik and Vaidik. They had trade
with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Byzantine/Rome empire, Persia, Africa, China, etc.
Scripts in Indus
seals and tablets have remained a challenge to Indologists to decipher. Though many have professed decoding them, it
is not fully deciphered satisfactorily still. In
Post-316 (: Jangal…Jangad) we have quoted Dr. S. Kalyanaraman of Saraswati
Centre on Indus script corpora & business transactions. German Indologist
Egbert Richter Ushanas claimed to have decoded 1000-odd seals ( Indian Express,
16th February, 2007). His
path-breaking decoding is based on the Sumerian and Brahmi script. He quotes
Sanskrit from Rigveda. Similar claims were made by a several other scholars.
Custom
laws and procedure were crystallized during the Mauryan rule and hence the
system prevailed then is considered as the basis for the present day
customs. Arthashastra of Kautilya (c.
300 BC) imposed strict adherence of rules and regulations. It recommended harsh
punishments for false declaration of goods, quantity, weight, etc. General rate was 20% for all goods except sea
customs and land customs. Foreign
traders were treated well. Gupta rule
was considered as golden era with their encouragement for international marine
trade. Besides land rent, they imposed
duty on agricultural produce and other services. Vijayanagara Empire held sway
over ports on western and eastern coasts, then followed by Ikkeri Nayaks and
Mysore Sultans. Moguls followed the same rule.
Prior
to colonization, sayer or sunkadakattes (collection chowkeys) collected transit duties. Incoming and outgoing goods used to bear seal
of authorities for ensuring legitimacy and preventing threat from pilferage or
substitution. Modern type of custom
houses established at Fort Williams during the rule of Nawaz of Bengal. Military and Naval force from Madras was
requisitioned by him against the threat of Burdwan landlord. After Battle of Plassey, Robbert Clive,Governor
of Fort Williams, built a new Fort in 1781.
British established themselves in Bengal, Madras, Delhi, Mumbai, Mysore
and slowly whole of India, barring some pockets of Dutch, French and Portuguese
trading posts.
Guilds
were at liberty to act in whatever manner
but at times kings could interfere, as we see during the era of Gupta Empire. A
mention of this is made in Kautilya’s Arthashastra too. There was no fixed
price and measurement and hence varied from place to place, even during Gupta
period when marine trade was in its peak.
We
have come across persons with surname ‘Shreni’ in Mangalore-Kasaragod region of Tulu Nadu (For
example, Gopala Krishna Shreni was a well-known Yakshagana artist). This indicates how erstwhile Tulu Nadu was
well-entrenched in sea and inland trade.
It
would be interesting to note that Shetties were addressed at Nemas (annual festivals) of Divine
Spirits as ‘Bāle or Bāler’ by Bootha impersonators at some places of Tulu Nadu. From this, it could be concluded that those Shrenibalas, accompanying the Sarthavahas, settled down in Tulu
Nadu.
Note
the saying, “Bele daanti achari baleda pukuli or pinkanu kettiye”
(Idling carpenter, without work, chiseled the buttock of a child). Artisans, like carpenters (Acharis), were
part of the caravans. Here ‘bāle’ has more than one meaning: child,
keel of a boat or a Shetty. As against the popular meaning as said above, the
correct meaning of the saying, most probably, is “The jobless carpenter passed
his time by chiseling the keel of a boat, thereby putting lives and properties
of voyagers at risk of drowning”.
Important
Ports
Tamralipta
was an important port at Bengal Delta. Karachapa (Karachi) in Sindh, Bharuch (during
Mauryan era), and small and big river estuaries were important sea ports along
the West coast. Basrur (near Kundapura), Bhatkal, Barkur and Kalyanpura (at the
estuary of Seeta and Suvarna rivers) Pangara(>Hangara) Katte (port with boat
building facilities), Udyavara, Mulki, Mangaluru, Manjeshwara, Bekal and
Kasaragod were important sea ports of yester year Tulu Nadu.
Goods
traded: Rice, coconuts, sugarcane, spices, tamarind, timber, betel leaves,
silk, cotton, wool, sea products (pearls, cowries, conches (shank), sea shells, fish, etc.),precious
gems, like lapis lazuli, gold and silver ornaments, base metals, camphor, pottery
and so on.
Trade
Terminology
Apanika: shop-keeper, retailer
Naigama: A trader belonging to a professional body of
merchants.
Pānis were important merchant class when cattle were
traded or they are treated as units of money in barter trade system. Mark the evolution of Panis:
Panis>Panikas>Vanikas>Vaishyas. Later on Vaishyas were considered as third rung of society in class system.
Panya: General
commodities
Shreshti/Setti/Chetti: Immensely rich merchant, often as financier and
investor in business and usurer.
Vaidehakas: Petty traders, mostly peddlers.
Hatta: Market place
(Mark the place name ‘Hattiangadi’ in Tulu Nadu).
Large
market centres: Pura, Pattana and Nagara/Nakhara (Nakre) and Velakula (port). It should be understood that they are riverine
places.
Amil : Land revenue. (Amaldar
used to mean assistant revenue collector or Assistant Commissioner). Amil is also
a popular surname in Gujarat and
among Muslim.
Amaram: Territory allocated to
the military chiefs .
Banjara: Banjara merchant, specializing in carrying (caravan)
trade, particularly in grains, salt, cattle . (The surnames Banjan, Bunnu or
Bunnan among Billavas might be a reflection of 'Banjara')
Place
Names
Mark
the evolution of Pan to Ban, Van, Banija>Vanija. Settlement of marine traders were known by
place names in Tulu Nadu, such as Pangarakatte > Hangarakatte, Padu Panambur
(Near Haleyangadi), Panambur (on the northern bank of River Phalguni, Pandeshwar
in Mangalore and Kundapur.
Gods of
Ocean
Presence of Lord
Pashupati (Mahadeva) and Lord Krishna as Protectors is legendary in western
coastline. We can also visualize
overlord-ship of Bhrigu and his clan, known as Bhargavas. Legend of Bhargava Rama, i.e Lord
Parashurama, is still remembered in Dwaraka-Konkan-Canara-Malabar Coast. He is worshipped in temples in Gujarat, Tulu
Nadu and Kerala.
“Ocean, from whom the
Gods are sprung”. This is a quotation
from the ‘Iliad’ by Homer, an 8th Century BC Greek Epic Poet. It is story of war between Spartan and
Trojans in Mediterrean region. The
Sparta was a powerful military city in ancient Greece. The king having a formidable marine power is
considered as a God of the Sea. Such
Titles were assumed by Indian Kings of yore, Eg. Skanda Gupta, Samudra Gupta,
etc. of Gupta Dynasty. Darious-I
[Daayav(h)us in old Persian], the Great, was the 3rd King of Persian Achaemenid
Empire (c.550-486 BCE. During his rule,
the empire included much of West Asia, the Caucasus, parts of Balkan. Dominance over sea, as we notice, played a
great role in marine navigation and trade in ancient world.
Turkish Ottoman Empire
(Post-348: Rumi), ruled the sea trade for 600 years, controlling South East
Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa and Horn of Africa, and the major land and marine trade routes between Europe and Asia were
controlled by the Turks till the middle of 20th
Century.
Conclusion
We presume that our penchant for unraveling the
original meanings of certain words (as opposed to the meanings understood in
course of time) may be of certain interest to curious readers in search of obscure
trails in our history.
Sayer, syre or sair
is a duty or tax for goods in transit.
It means a customary charge or duty imposed on imports and exports at
destinations. Marine trade made people
wealthy and brought riches to kings then and now to Governments – democratic or
dictatorial.
In Tulunadu when a person
sits gloomily with face downcast, relatives and friends used ask him rather
comically: “Daane ninna kappal murkuduna? (=Why you are sitting disappointed? Whether your ship sunk?)
Old generation people,
still living, may remember the jingling bells of bullocks moving in a line,
traversing dusty roads from highlands to ports of Tulu Nadu. Those were
the bullock caravan with produce from hinterland. They can even hear
singing by and see jovial faces of cart drivers.
-Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune
REFERENCES
( along with suggested readings)
Post
Nos. in this blog: 158: Pandyas & Cargo boats, 296/01.03.2012: Ancient Port
of Basarur, 297: Weavers of civilization, 316: Jangal, Jangar or Jangad- A
classic usage in Trade and Travel, 334: Secret of Ambagilu, 348/29.07.2015: Rumi, etc
Hobson-Jobson
Dictionary, pp.798-801
Pages in the internet:
Ancient Navigators
Indian
History, Krishna Reddy, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
Foreign Trade & Commerce in Ancient India, Prakash
Charan Prasad
A Social History of Early India, Brajadulal
Chattopadhya