In early morning twilight, chipping at the serenity of the day-break is the
monotonous thumping sound of a weaver’s loom mingled with morning chorus
song of birds. The harping looms continue until
dusk, adding to the splendour of sunset when birds return to their nests smitten
with gleeful chirping and chattering. This
harmonious sound of music from dawn to dusk was heard in the bye-lanes of every
civilized villages and towns, where once thrived the colony of weavers.
Civilization in this world set in when the early men and women felt the
need to dress themselves up to cover private parts, to protect the body from
the vagaries of climate as well as to be fashionable in front of others. Early
humans dating back to period 60,000 to 10,000 years ago clad themselves in leaf
aprons to begin with and further graduated into loin cloths fashioned out of
animal hides. The most popular Indian God Shiva is usually depicted with loin
cloth made out of deer skin, suggesting that the concept and cult of divine
Shiva originated and spread during pre-fabric tribal days in India.
Early humans grew long hairs on their head and in an effort to organize
the long hairs had devised ingenious methods of making plaits out of long
hairs. Braided or plaited hairs, hair weaving, and wigs have been recorded from
period as old as 3400 BC in parts of Egypt and Africa. Weaving of the cloths could
have further evolved from rope making and from observing the structure of plant
leaves. Weaving cloths fashioned out of
threads fashioned out of fibres derived from cotton, flax, silk cotton or silk
cocoons may be as old as agriculture in the world. An indistinct textile impression found at
Pavlov, Moravia, indicates that weaving was known in Palaeolithic Era.
In a Neolithic site at Anatolia, Near East,
archaeologists have found fabrics, used for wrapping the dead. It is carbonised in a fire and radiocarbon
date is ca 6000-5000 BCE. There is
evidence of Flax (a slender erect tree with blue flowers) cultivation from 8000
BCE but the breeding of sheep with a woolly fleece rather than hair is seen
much later in and around ca. 3000 BCE. Flax fibre was mainly used in Egypt
around 3600 BCE. Turkey has made a claim
of earliest known linen cloth (woven in about 7000 BCE) and draped around an
antler, i.e. horn of animal of deer family.
In India, inhabitants of the Indus Valley
civilization used cotton for clothing as early as 3300 to 2600 BC as evidenced
from cotton cloth pieces found in excavated sites. Cotton is mentioned in Rig Veda (dating ca. 1700-1500
BCE). “Cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill and their
use spread to Mediterranean countries…” (Columbia Encyclopaedia). Fine cotton muslins were exported to the
Greeks and the Romans. The Roman historian Pliny lamented on the drain of Roman
gold to India owing to mad love for Indian fabrics. Marco Polo observed (in 13th
Century) that brocading art of Gujarat weavers is par excellent. Muslins from
Dhaka (now in Bangladesh) were prized collections. Sham.Bha.Joshi (Shankar Bhaskar Joshi) tells
the story of cotton (ಹತ್ತಿಯ ಕತೆ) in his Book “Karnata Poorva Sankriti,
Vol.2”. Westerners believed that cotton
wool was coming from ‘Sheep-tree’ (ಕುರಿ ಮರ). The
Greek Historian, Herodotus described (in 5th Century BC) that the
Indians wore clothing made from the wool, borne by wool-trees. He further wrote
that this wool was more superior in beauty and quality than the wool of a
sheep. It is only in circa 1600AD, European explorers found out that cotton
plants are also grown in Americas. The Flax, or the linseed is known by
different vernacular names: Alsi (Hindi, Gujarathi &
Punjabi), Ali Vidai (Tamil), Jawas, alashi and linseed (Marathi), Tishi
(Bengali), Pesi (Oriya),Avise ginzalu (Telugu), Cheruchana vithu (Malayalam)
and Agasi (Kannada and Tulu
?). It is cultivated and harvested since prehistoric times in parts of
Africa (Ethiopia & ancient Egypt) for nutrients and fibres.
In China, the earliest evidence of silk
production was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia, Shanxi, where a
cocoon of ‘bombyx mori’, the domesticated silkworm, cut in a half by a sharp
knife, is dated between 5000 & 3000 BCE.
The trade route, known as silk route had begun in 114 BCE during the
reign of Han dynasty connecting East and West.
This 5000-mile route on land and sea linked traders, merchants,
pilgrims, monks, soldiers and urban people from China to the Mediterrean Sea
region. This route was instrumental in
developing great Civilizations of China, Indian sub-continent, Egypt, Mesopotamia,
Persia (Iran) and Rome. Sericulture is introduced outside China around 2nd
Century. Legend is that a Chinese Princess, when she married a prince of Khotan
of Central Asia, carried hidden the silk cocoons to be reared in her country of
adoption.
Weaving
Weaving is a general
method of fabric or cloth production, require two distinct sets of yarns or
threads: Longitudinal threads are called
Warp (ಹಾಸು) and the lateral threads are called Weft (ಹೊಕ್ಕು). Weft is an old English word, meaning ‘that
which is woven’. In a weaving Loom the longitudinal
warp threads in held in tight position while the weft thread, winds in between
at right angles to the former. Method of
interlacing the threads decides the pattern of the cloth. That is why a harmonious living in a society
is compared poetically to agreeableness of warp and weft in cloth weaving where
woof>weft or pick is propelled across the loom by a shuttle.
Thus, there seems to be uniformity in cultural beliefs, thinking and
living patterns among traditional (pre-industrial) weavers. This unity of form and substance is seen in
weaving communities of the world in spite of geographical barriers.
Spider
Spider being the symbol or totem of weaving, world literature abounds
with interesting stories. Spider silk is collected, rearing thousands of Madagascar
Golden Spiders, toughened scientifically and dresses are made in America, UK
and France, just for record purpose.
News about making of a ‘waistcoat’ out of spider fiber has recently
appeared in a print media. Though it is tested that tensile strength of spider
silk is greater than steel, it is proved that it is not possible to rear spiders,
as silk-worms. Instinctively, spider
eats one another’s head when herded together in close quarters. Collecting
spider silk is not feasible unless this insect is immobilised.
Weaving communities
Weaving communities constitute an important segment of the Indian social
fabric. They belong to different
ethno-lingual groups with varying religious-social practices. With the
discovery of cotton and silk fabrics, they played an important role in trade
and commerce – internal and external.
Their population prospered at sea ports where erstwhile merchant guilds
(Nagar or Nakhar, say Trade Posts) concentrated. This merchant class had
soldiers (sarthavahas) from their own group for protection from thieves on land
and pirates in sea. Leader of their
caravan was called as ‘Maha Sarthavaha’.
Regional Caste-names
In Tulunadu a specific ‘Salian’ lineage prevails among most of the Tulu
communities. The Salian bari refers to salia or taliya, the spider. It is not
clear whether the Salian lineage is based exclusively on totem spider or it
refers to group of early weavers in southern India.
However in the medieval and later ages, Shettigars migrated and settled
in parts of Tulunadu. Characteristically they have introduced the worship of
Veerabhadra in Tulunadu. The title Shettigar derived from Settikar (merchant)
is akin to ‘Chettiar’ of Tamilandu. Some of these groups designate themselves
as Padmashalis, originating from Andhra areas. Devanga is a popular weavers
group in Kannada and Telugu areas.
Weavers have been grouped in Vaishya category of Chaturvarna. Though
having Brahminical characteristics, they are both vegetarian and
non-vegetarian. In Karnataka, there are
30/32 groups of castes of weavers. Padmashalis profess that they are
independent of other groups as their cultural practices are based on Vedic
codes of conduct.
The OBC List-115 of Central Government contains the following weavers
communities: (1) Padmashali, (2) Devanga, (3) Jaandra, (4) Thogata, (5) Thogata
Veerakashtriya, (6) Pattakaru, (7) Karmi Bhakthula, (8) Karakala Bhakkula, (9)
Swakula Saali, (10) Neela Sali, (11) Nala Kandhi, Nessi, (13) Kurni, (14) Kurmi
Setti, Saali, (15) Karikaala, (16) Kaikolan, (17) Senguwaakan, (18) Pattusali,
(19) Shettigar .
Weavers as a profession take different caste names regionally:
Padmashalis (Andhra Pradesh – Telugu). They trace their origin to
Goddess Padmavathi, consort of Lord Shrinivasa of Tirupati.
Devanga (Karnataka/Andhra – Kannada & Telugu). Pure cotton cloth weavers.
Saliyar/Padmasaliyar, Chettiyar (Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh – Tamil
& Telugu).
Noted for coarse cloth weaving.
Pattu Sales among them are weavers of silk and super-fine clothes. They
do not wear sacred threads.
Pattarya (Kerala – Malayalam).
Malayali weavers are also known as Chaliyan and Saliya/Saali/Saale. They
are identified by their household names.
S(h)ettigar (Karnataka – Tulu & Kannada).
Caste Names Sale/Saliya, Salvi, Padmashali and Devanga are used
severally. Sometimes, they are used
interchangeably. However, Kannada and
Telugu Salis differ from Malayalee Salis in many cultural aspects. Former are mainly patriarchal, following
Brahminical customs.
(In line with Padmasali the Mulya
(Kulal or Kumbara =earthen pot-makers) have coined group name ‘Chakrashali’ )
Weavers communities
Devangas: They are one of the oldest communities in the caste system. They trace their origin to Devala Rishi. According
to legends Lord Shiva at the bequest of Brahma, created a man and called him
Devala for providing clothing to Gods, who were naked in the Pre-ages. Hence he is popularly known as Devanga, or
the one who clothed the Gods. It is said
that Devanga took seven incarnations in four Yugas (Celestial Epochs). In Age
of Krita he was known as Devala, in Treta as Devanga, Dwapara as Vidhyadhara,
Pushpadanta and Betala, and in Kali as Varruchi, Chitrayogi, Devasthali,
Devadasa and Devanga. In each Avatar he
manufactured the thread and clothes for Gods and men.
Three-stranded Sacred Thread
(Yajnopaveeta) of cotton fibre was reported to have been introduced by him.
This tradition of wearing Yajnopaveeta was started by him and is adhered by
Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. He was King of Amodanagar and taught to his
followers and propagated Devanga Religion and philosophy.
They are spread in endogamous linguistic divisions as Sivacharya
(Lingayat), Telugu, Kannada and Hatagars (Non-lingayat and Lingayats). Hatagars
are Lingayats in Karnataka. In Maharashtra, Hatagars comes in Dhangar community.
Edgar Thurston’s ‘Caste & Tribes of Southern India (Vol.2) says Hatagars is
a sub-caste of Devangas, who are also called as Kodekal Hatagaru.
Koli: Koli means a spider,
one who spins a web or one who weaves a net.
It also means a fisherman, presumably because he makes and uses a net to
catch his prey as a spider its web. Cultural and occupational identities can be
traced to weaver’s communities in Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Bengal, Orissa, Maharshtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu. (It is interesting to note that ‘Kol’ is used as Prefix or Suffix
in many Place-names all over India).
Koshti: They trace their
origin to Markandeya Rishi of Bhrigu clan.
They served as soldiers under Shivaji and Peshwas and Tippu Sultan. They believe that they are descendant of
Rajhans, king of Devagiri (Berar). They
speak Marathi, Kannada and variant of Hindi.
Salvi: Salvi silk weavers’
community migrated to Patan (Gujarat around 12th Century from Karnataka
and Maharashtra under the patronage of Solanki Rajput King Kumarapala and rich
merchants. ‘Shal or Sal’ means loom in Gujarathi (Note: Sal or Sala is also a
tree, having scientific name of Shorea robusta. In Indian temple sculptures, it
is used for ‘Salabhanjika’, a feminine figure breaking the sala branch of a
tree). Patan Patola silk sarees are very
famous for their colour and geometrical designs. It has become a status symbol of women as
‘Sridhan’. Weavers in Zoroastrian Parsis
migrated to Saurashtra (Gujarat) brought the knowhow of Sassanian motifs and
brocade technique to India. It explains
why Parsee ladies are fond of wearing Silk saris with flower motifs and brocades
(as seen in Mumbai).
Patnuli/Khatri: It is a dialect of Gujarathi Patnulikarans, settled in Madurai. They
are immigrants from Saurashtra (Gujarat).
They came to South on the invitation of the Nayaka Kings of Madurai. They speak ‘Sourashtri’, which is Indo-Aryan
language. Though its origin is in North
India, it is now widely spoken in South India, especially Tamil Nadu. It is a mixture of Gujarathi, Kannada, Telugu
and many secret technical terms and bits of slangs, peculiar to the community. It is a minority language and Sahitya Akademi
has recognized it as an independent language and not a dialect of Gujarathi and
honoured two Sourashtric scholars by giving Bhasha Sanmana Award.
Sengunthar or Kaikolars: Their community is
found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Sri Lanka. They put ‘Mudaliar’ after their names as a
Title, which is supposed to be a variant of ‘Moodley’ title of weavers of South
Africa. Etymological meaning is ‘Kai (hands) + Kol (Shuttle used in
looming). Kol also means iron/metal and
spear. They are known as ‘Men with
daggers with strong arm’. They are
warriors with red dagger. They enjoyed special rights as Temple Trustees. ‘Devadasa’ system is said to have originated
by them. They were ‘Khaikula’ weavers in the beginning and were militarized
during Chola Empire in Circa 800 AD.
After 13th Century they became full time weavers on the
decline of Cholas. Being specialized in
export and transportation, they were associated with ‘Ayyavole 500’ and were
responsible for transporting goods manufactured right from Vindhya Mountain region,
Godavari basin to Sri Lanka. In this
way, they settled in all major ports, including Mangalore and Malabar
areas. Their skill in handling export
goods is proverbial in Malabar.
Acchuvaru:
Though reported in Madras Census-1901
as ‘grain carrying Oriya people’, they are attached to Devanga weavers and
receive their name from the fact that they do acchupani, i.e. thread the long
comb-like structures of the handloom. They correspond to Jatipillais of the
Kaikolan weavers, who do acchuvelai.
Talye/Talyer aka Settigars
‘Talye or Talyer’ is a weaving community of Tulu Nadu (undivided South
Kanara). Talye means spider in Tulu. ’Ta’ (ತ) generally
interchanges to ‘sa’ (ಸ). So Talye and Salye are synonyms. In Government
records they are known as S(h)ettigars, which originally stands for a Title in
the Organizational set-up of Devangas.
They are known as ‘Sale, Sali or Saliga/Saliya’ in Kannada and Malayalam.
Gujarat weavers are also known as ‘Saliya’.
They speak a mixture of corrupt Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Tulu, as
they are supposed to have come to Tulunadu from interior Karnataka to East
Coast (Andhra Pradesh, Pandya Maduradesha of Tamil Nadu) and then West Coast
through Kerala. There were also called
as ‘Billimagga’ (qv Billmagga 240-242 in ‘Castes and Tribes of Southern
India-Vol.1’, by Edgar Thurston) as they were weaving only white cloths. “White
cloths are required for certain Gods “..and Bhutas (erroneously mentioned as ‘devils’)..” on occasions of festivals, and
these are usually obtained from Billimaggas”.
“The Bilimaggas follow the makkala Santana law of inheritance (from
father to son). They are said to have
seven Gotras, and those of the Mangalore, Kundapur and Udupi Taluks are stated
to belong respectively to the 800, 700 and 500 nagaras. The caste deities are Virabhadra, Brahmalinga
and Ammnoru.
For the whole community, there is a chief headman called Paththukku
Solra Settigar, or the Setti who advises the ten, and for every village there
is an ordinary headman, styled Gurikara.
The chief headman is usually the manager of some temple, and the
gurikara has to collect the dues from the members of the community. Every married couple has to pay an annual tax
(of twelve annals) and every unmarried male over twelve years of age of six
annas towards temple fund…….” (Edgar Thurston)
Ayakattu/Kattemane – A social set-up
As ‘Mahasabha’ is to Andhra Devangas,
Kattemane/Ayakattu is to Kannada Devangas.
Mahasabha or Kattemane has a jurisdiction over a limited area. This
organization has the following hierarchical set-up:
Yejamana: It is not a
hereditary post but is from identified families on the basis of good conduct
and character. He is compared to a king, guided by Settigar.
Settigars: Similarly, post is not strictly hereditary. He
is compared as Advisor or Minister, enjoying position next to Yejamana. They
are selected locality-wise these days, as streets where Devangas live are
reduced.
Saasarajus: They are assistants
to Settigars in social matters and to priests in religious matters. They work as go-between members of the Mahasabha
/ Kattemane and the Yejamana (President) as messengers of disputes through
Settigars and carry back decisions of the Settigar/Yejamana/Mahasabha to
complainants. They are paid by Devanga
families annually and hold the Post till their death.
Karanika: He maintains the
accounts of Mahasabha under Yejamana and Settigars
Archakas: They are appointed and paid Priests in
Community temples
Gurus: They are local Swamy
(Pontifs) for Devangas, assisted by their Disciples, known Jangalu. They are
well-versed in religious and ritual matters and their words are supreme.
Singamu/Singamvallu: Mendicants, helping
in funeral matters. They are taken care of by community members.
Revival of Guru Peetha
In May1990, Kannada Devangas have installed at Hemakuta Gayatri Peeth,
Hampi Devanga Mutt (District Bellary), Sri Sri Sri Dayananda Puri Maharaja as
Jagadguru of all Devangas to revive the Guru Peeth. This Guru Peeth was established
during Vijayanagara Empire but was defunct for historical reasons unknown. Sri Muddusangaswamy was the then Jagadguru.
Settigars – a breakaway group!
Historically, it appears that Settigars, basically a Title under the
Community’s Social Organizational System, are a breakaway group of Devangas /Padmasales of Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh. Compelling economical considerations, like demand of dowries, etc.,
forced Settigars to move away from the mainstream. They were loyal Chiefs under Vijayanagara
Empire, particularly during Tuluva Dynasty rule.
There is an old adage in Tulu: “ಸಾಲ್ಯೆ
ಪ್ರತ್ಯೇಕಾದು ಹಾಳಾಯೆ, ಸೆಟ್ಟಿ ಪ್ರತ್ಯೇಕ
ಆವಂದೆ ಹಾಳಾಯೆ” {Downfall of a Salye, i.e. weaver, is certain if he forsakes family or
community. Shetty (agro-merchant class) is ruined by remaining undivided}.
Weavers as a class live in clusters in lanes and bye-lanes of villages or towns. Such a communal locality is called ‘Keri’ (ಕೇರಿ) in Kannada/Tulu and ‘Teru’ in Malayalam and Tamil. Weaving
being a family-based profession a child learns the trade by watching and when
he crosses teenage he learns all tricks of the trade.
Similarity of clan names (Bari) among weavers and other castes in Tulunadu
and Malabar signifies the division of labour within the communities in initial
stages of evolution. (See the Post on ‘Baris’.)
Edanga-Balanga (Left & Right Hand)
It is a vertical power division within the caste in Southern India. It is a
distinction of higher (right hand) and lower (left hand) position based on
Purity and Pollution irrespective of belonging to polarized Sects of Shaivas (worshipping Shiva, Vinayaka and Veerabhadra
and Goddess Maariamma/Bhagavathi) and Vaishnavs (worshipping Vishnu incarnations
and Padmavathi). Devangas and Kaikolars
are considered as Left-hand castes whereas Padmashalis of Andhra consider
themselves as Right-hand class. Weavers migrated to Malabar and South Kanara
Coasts from Karnataka-Andhra via Tamil-coast are normally left-hand ones.
However, switch over is also observed
from Left-hand to Right-hand and vice versa. Conflicting stories are woven to
describe a fall from Balanga to Edanga.
Miscegenation
A caste follows different professions and followers of these professions
are again sub-grouped and are known by different caste names. It is a fact, which we see in Census Reports
of Colonial Era. Strife of royal dynasties for supremacy and upholding their
faith has been a cause of migration, cross fertilization and conversion. There has been a trend of coalescing on basis
of traditional professions
There has been breaking, assimilating, and breaking and coalescing at
different points of time. We will find
this when we read ‘Bunts, Mogaveeras, Billavas, Kapus, Komatis, Mudirajas,
Balijas, Kavars, Kavarai, etc. in Thurston-Rangachari’s Book on Castes &
Tribes. In spite of these, we observe a
linguistic connection, shaping the unity.
Language acts as a binding tool.
The generalization made above also applies to weavers of South
India. It is a welcome sign that they
are forging themselves to a unified group as ‘Padmashalis’ these days.
They thrived under feudal system but lost their dominant position in
colonial era. Spinning and weaving is considered as ‘a wheel of progress’ and
hence spinning wheel is rightly adopted by Mahatma Gandhi during freedom
struggle, to uphold cottage industry. With growth of Power-looms and modern
textile mills, weaving by traditional weavers is limited to certain brands of
specialized weaving, which are known by regional names.
- Hosabettu Vishwanath (Pune)
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