Our heritage is simply a summary of continuum
of cultural, religious, linguistic and genetic contributions by various tribes
inhabited in this land since the beginning of tangible forms of civilization. In
spite of explicit evidences of stratification and discrimination, it can be
inferred that every Tulu community has borrowed cultural, linguistic and
genetic rudiments of heritage from its earlier generations. It is necessary
that we should endeavor to appreciate and understand the contributions of
various tribes, beyond the general limitations of bigotry that pesters our
society in general.
In this post we shall look into the salient information
currently available on the Mugera community of Tulunadu.
Mugera
In terms of population, the Mugera is the
largest dalit Tulu speaking community in Dakshina Kannada district. Variants of the word Mugera are Mogera,
Muggera and Mera. They are known as Mera in eastern parts of the district.
Other dalits groups in the district refer to Mugers by alternate names such as Kalaler
(by Koragas), Kaipuder (by Manser), or Poojari (by Nalike). In parts of Kerala they are known as Mayya or
Mayyamar or Māyila.
During the history, the Mugera were hunters,
fishers, warriors or agricultural laborers. Ancient forts known as Mayila kote at places like Madhuru, Kātukukke etc. suggest that
they were rulers during the history in parts of Tulunadu and Kerala. They were
generally dark in skin color and Tulu was their mother tongue. They were well
versed in the use of bows and arrows (known as biru-pagari in Tulu). They
also lived as artisans skilled in basket weaving or making rain shields (korambu). During the history they worked as security personnel for the
Tulu landlords of Guttu and Māgane.
Two scholars from the community, Dr. Abhay
Kumar Kaukradi (1997) and Dr. Koira N
Balepuni (2005) have brought out two independent sociological studies on the
Mugera community. The essential field data in this post has been gathered from
these two excellent research works.
The
Mugerlu: Mudda and Kalala
The Mugeras worship Spirits of martyred twin
heroes from the community known as Mudda and Kalala or simply as “Mugerlu”(=the
mugeras) who were considered to have been killed in their youth by
deceit.. They appear to have been the
contemporaries of and served under the renowned Billava twin heroes Koti and
Chennayya. In some areas, another pair of heroes Yenmura Deyyu and Kelata Perne
take the place of the “Mugerlu” twins.
Tanni Māni
Anecdotes
describe the legend of Tanni Māni, brave sister of Mugera heroes Mudda and
Kalala made use of her drape( sāri) as a
rope and helped in the release of Koḍdabbu (Koteda Babbu) an artisan from the Mundala
community who was captive and trapped in an sealed open well .
According to legends Kelata Perne was the
husband of Tanni Maani.
From the legends of Mudda-Kalala and Koti
Chennayya we get the impression that Mugera and Billava youths were serving as
soldiers and security personnel for Jain Kings and the legends of these
probably date back to later part of 16th Century CE as inferred by
Dr Vamana Nandavara (2001).
Mugera
Etymology Word origin
In Tulu language the word muger means (1) floodplain or flank of a river and (2) rabbit.
However, the term Mugera stands for a community of Muger tribes. Incidentally
in Tulu ‘—eru’ is a plural indicator denoting a group of people. In most of the
tribal languages, the group name usually means people in their language (For
example Koraga, Bantu, Munda etc mean ‘people’ or ‘human beings’ in
their respective original languages.) Therefore, if there was a distinctive
Mugera language before the prevalence of Tulu then the word Mugera in that
language would have meant people by analogy.
Totem
of Rabbit
However, on other hand, the rabbit (‘Muger’ in
Tulu) was an ancient totem found in many parts of
the ancient tribal world. Therefore it is possible that originally the core of Mugera community is a representation
of ancient totem of rabbit in Tulunadu. During trans-continental migration of early
human tribes of into coastal India, the ancient tribes may have carried their
totemic cultural traits to West Coast along with them. The totem theory is proven
by existence of other ancient totem groups in Tulunadu like Sanil /Chanil (=squirrel)
and Salian<.Talya (=spider), Bāge (=Tiger) etc.
Mugera
names
Some of the male proper names of Mugera people
are Mangura, Pijina, Kukka, Kumbe, Kalanja etc.
Kāpaḍa
The village level community leader gurikara, among the Mugera tribes is
known as Kāpaḍa, Kāpa or Oorudāye. The community leadership of a Kāpaḍa is
passed on to his son as a hereditary feature.
There was a custom of erecting banana plant in
the middle of large agricultural paddy fields after ploughing the field in the
West Coast. This was known as bare paaduni (= installing banana plant). This
duty in the village was traditionally carried out by Kāpada of the Mugera
community.
Similarly, the honor of installing the
ceremonial flowery post (“Pookare”) in the Kambula (traditional
buffalo race) wet field was also being allotted to the leader of the Mugera community, the
Kāpada.
Pārtana, Sandhi and Kabita
They refer to traditional ballads and songs as
Pārtana instead of Pāḍdana as in other Tulu communities. (Note that the Mugera
word Pārtana is akin to Sanskrit Prārthana).
The type of ballad known as Sandhi refers to recitation of traditional
viewpoint of history of the specific Spirit. The song type known as kabita refers to popular ballads sung
during traditional planting of saplings (neji)
in paddy fields.
Spirit
worship pattern
Mugera tribes are known for worshiping spirits
of “Mugerlu” as Kola or Nema festival on a village level. The periodic spirit worship, celebrated on monthly basis, at family level on the day of Sankranti, is known as Manja; and the offering is known as Aghel.
Generally, there are no specific idols
and the traditional symbols of worship consist of bow and arrows (biru-pagari), sword (suria) and in some cases the crown or headgear (chapparambu).
Dudi drum
The traditional drum used by Mugera tribes is
known as duḍi. The
Duḍi is a kind of horizontally
aligned, double conical or
hour glass shaped drum, usually carved out of wood with constricted
passage in the middle portion and the opposite circular open heads covered with
animal hide (see figure). Usually animal skins of monkeys and lizards were used to cover the drum head. The drum head is beaten
with a curved stick and simultaneously the rope tied round the constricted central part of the duḍi is pulled to elicit required pattern of percussion sound.
 |
| Variants of Duḍi drums |
A few varied forms of duḍi are also popular among other tribes such as Kodava, Irava
(Yerava), Mansa, Mayila and others. Some of the Kodava
duḍis’ are made out of metal bronze unlike other wooden models popular with other tribes.
The tribes perform a number of types of traditional dances in tune with the beats of the duḍi
drums.
Damaruga
and Shiva
We can see that the dudi drum is similar in shape to the damaruga drum held by Lord Shiva in our legends, even though the duḍi is larger in size compared to the ḍamaruga.
Apart from the common shape of duḍi and ḍamaruga, the connection of Mugeras (and other tribes) with Shiva
and linga are also evident in folk-lores connected with many of the ancient
Shiva/Linga temples of Tulunadu. Anecdotes suggest that a tribal woman while
gathering fodder or forage stumbles upon a piece of stone which exudes blood;
and further the local people build a temple and worship that stone as Shiva-
linga.
Types
of Mugera dances
The Mugera tribes traditionally perform a
number of dance types as a part of specific seasonal celebrations or for the
purpose of entertainment in the community. Salient seasonal celebratory dance
forms include: (a) Karamgolu (b) Chennu (c) Aati Kalanja and (d) Pili panji.
Besides, there are a number of types of dances performed for entertainment or
during marriage (Darilo; Oddunalike) or public festivities at
temples(like at Ubara makhe) or at buffaloe
race( or Kambula).
A few of the significant seasonal dance celebrations are
discussed here under:
(a)
Karamgolu
The Karamgolu is seasonal a group dance
performed by male dancers along with recitation of pertinent folk ballads
accompanied to the beat of duḍi drums
specifically in the Tulu month of Māyi (roughly February to March) especially on
the full moon day. The term “Karamgolu”,
as implied in folklores, represents a special type of seed used for sowing
crops, according to Dr Amrita Someshwara. In other words, the “Karamgolu”
signifies the sanctity of “karam”
(karma= physical labor; agricultural activity) and sowing of seed (golu).
In some legends, a specific type of paddy seed known as Atikāri (a rice variety) is referred to as Karamgolu.
The seasonal dance of Karamgolu appears to be
not exclusive to the Mugeras, as it is also played by other tribal communities
of the region. However, Karamgolu is commonly played by Mugeras in parts of Bantwal Taluk in Dakshina Kannada.
Ancient tribes gave sanctity and importance to essential
agricultural practices which included selection of proper seeds. The Karamgolu
dance is headed by a senior man referred to as “Angara Bakuda”, who represents the leader of the community in the
dance.
(b)
Chennu
The Chennu
(means a beautiful woman) represents the folk ballad of a woman with child and
is relevant to aspects of maternity. It is performed for a month from the full
moon of Māyi (February/March) to the
full moon of Suggi (March/April). The
role of Chennu is portrayed by men dressed like woman and the child is symbolic
in the form of a doll. She presents pictures of maternal care and love along
with aspirations for welfare of the humanity in spite of the abject poverty
experienced by the her family and community.
The celebration of the seasonal
dance of Chennu is said to be
exclusive feature of the Mugera community.
(c)
Aati Kalanja
The word
Aați (= Ashaḍa in Kannada areas) refers to a Tulu month, characterized by
intense rainfall, falling between July and August. And Kalanja is name of the
young man, who is supposed to be a representative of the ancient Spirit divinity
known as Bermer. He is also known as Kodanje in some areas.The Birmer (or Bermer) is the ancient Spirit deity of Tulunadu
worshiped by various tribes. He visits the rural households chanting ballads
for blessing them for getting rid of
ailments and (food) scarcity that usually pester the rural people during the
peak rainy season. Thus, the Aati Kalanja is also known alternately, as Birmere
Māni, Kalenja Bermer, Birmer etc. The performance is celebrated on the Full
moon day and its eve during the month of Aati. The yellow powder of turmeric (Curcuma longa), which has known insecticidal and antibiotic properties, is usually sprinkled around the houses visited by Kalanja.
The Aati Kalanja is an ancient representative
of divinity in vogue since early historical days. He carries a “tatra” or palm
leaf umbrella symbolic of power, authority and divinity. He sings the ballad
accompanied by the beating of dudi drum. The peak month of rainy season since
antiquity is also a period of diseases and shortage of food grains. The aim and
intention of the Aati Kalanja celebration is to wipe out the diseases and
restoration of health.
(d).
Pili panji
Pili panji means
a tiger and a hog (pig). It is a hunters
dance pattern symbolizing hunting wild animals like tigers(=‘pili’) and hog, or wild pig (=‘ panji’) and the like. It
commonly performed by the Mugeras of Beltangadi and Puttur Taluks which are
closer to dense forest areas.
Kasaraka
tree
The Mugera tribes traditionally held Kasaraka
tree (Kayer or Kaveri tree) in high esteem. Whenever there is a child birth in
the house it was customary to place four twigs of Kasaraka tree in the four
corners of the roof of the house apparently
for the protection of the newborn baby from evil eyes.
Vāstu
rudiments
The Mugera have a specific pattern of Vāstu for
construction of dwelling houses, according to Dr. Abhaya Kumar (1997). Generally, the
houses are simple in design with entrance of their houses face Eastern
direction. North facing entrances are taboo among them.
Obituary
The dead bodies are normally buried, without
aligning the body to any of the specific directions.
Stratification in Tribal Society
The members of the Mugera community generally
consider themselves superior to other dalit
groups such as Mundala, Bākuda, Godda, Mansa and
Māyila. These are generally considered as the first ranking dalits in Tulunadu (Abhaya Kumar, 1997). Spirit dancers such as Nalike, Panara, Pambada and Kopala are considered as second
ranking tribes. The spirit dancers came from outside, probably from Tamilnadu, according to Abhaya Kumar. The Koraga tribes appear to belong to older/earlier generation
of tribes that inhabited coastal Karnataka.
Bari
lineages
In the Mugera community there are 18 bari lineage sects according to Dr.
Abhaya Kumar (1997) but he gives a list of total 22 baris’, the additional ones
being added in later years. Among these the Koormer is said to be the most
respected or preferred bari during forging matrimonial alliances.
Bari
lineage groups among the Mugera
The list of Bari lineages provided by Dr. Abhaya
Kumar Kaukradi (1997) is provided below:
A1. Koormer,
A2.
Bangera,
A3.
Salian,
A4.
Kundadanna,
A5. Manjadanna,
A6. Yeradanna,
A7. Beemardanna,
A8. Kumerdanna,
A9. Mattedanna,
A10. Poovadanna,
A11. Arpudanna,
A12. Uppenna,
A13. Māradanna,
A14. Bhadradanna,
A15. Kanappanna,
A16. Pulletanna,
A17. Marder etc.
A18. Wagetanna
A19. Karamber
A20.Bāge
A21.Bidranna
A22.Kesardanna
However, according to Dr Koira (2010) there are
16 baris’ plus a few additional baris’ which he considers as regional
variants or koodu baris’. He states that it is difficult to separate
original 16 baris’ from koodu baris’. His list is as follows, .
The Bari lineage list provided by Dr. Koira N. Balepuni (2010):
K1. Chalianna
(=K17);
K2. Kundachanna (=K18, K19),
K3 . Bangaradanna.
K4. Kumerdanna (=K20), *
K5. Kinnyadanna, (=K21, K22),
K6. Ponnedanna,
K7. Mardaranna (=K23, K24, K25 , K26),
K8. Pernedanna.
K9. Bolle Aitanna.
K10. Parikadanna.
K11. Uppianna.
K12. Poovedanna.
K 13. Sonadanna.
K14. Mottedanna,
K15. Karkadanna,
K16. Nadaranna.
Additional bari
s’ regional variants or koodu bari
s’ (Dr Koira)
(K17. Sāmedanna / Sāmanidanna)
(K18.Chanilanna)
(K19.Mundaidanna)
(K20.Koormer),
(K21.Kinyarde)
(K22. Kinnigere),
(K23.Manjadanna)
(K24.Madmaranna)
(K25. Yerderanna ),
(K26 Oderanna),
K27. Kesardanna
K28. Bojjaranna
K29. Gunderanna
K30. Kaalikoranna
K31. Perbanna ……etc.
(*
Asterisks show numbers of equivalent baris enlisted suggested by Dr Koira. Bari
names of serial numbers beginning with A are from Dr Abhaya Kumar (1997) and
those beginning with K are from Dr
Koira (2010). Common Baris falling in both the lists are shown in bold letters.
The suffix –anna implies a man or
person. Kundacha means Sanil or squirrel).
The Koteda Babbu was from the Parikedanna bari and Tanni Māni, sister of Mugera heroes Mudda
and Kalala was said to be from the lineage of Muncheridanna.
This particular bari does not exist
at present according to Dr. Koira.
INFERENCES
Antiquity
of Mugeras: Origin and antiquity of the tribal community bearing the
totem name of “muggear” (rabbit) may go back to early days of
civilization. In ancient tribal
communities that lived together in the form of a collective habitation, each
habitation had its own insignia that was symbolically represented on a pole at the
entrance to the habitation. Totems of rabbit, squirrel, spider, serpent and
other animals were the insignia of specific tribal communities in the
antiquity. The totem of rabbit was commonly found in ancient tribes of Africa
and other parts of ancient world.
Totem
and Bari evidences: Of the totems and bari lineages, it is difficult to
decide which was older. However, since the term “bari” means a 'house' in ancient
Indian languages like Munda/Prakrit, we can deduce that the bari system chronologically followed the system of totems (tribal insignia) during the early days of civilization as recognition and registration of the genetic identity of individuals in the ancient society .
A large number of bari lineage groups existing among
the Mugera community suggests the amalgamation of several “ bari” groups during
different historical stages into the fold of community, presently designated as Mugeras.
It can be noted that some of the bari types existing among the Mugeras are also
common in other communities in Tulunadu, suggesting clearly that the common evolution of
the communities took place, before segregating into “castes” in the due course of time
Mogaveera: For
example, a part of the Tulu fisher community was known as “Mogera” in parts of
Tulunadu before adoption of the name of “Mogaveera” during beginning of the 20th
century. There is an argument that
‘Mugera’ and “Mogera” are different, the latter being suggestive of ‘mugear ’ which is the floodplain of a river.
However, it seems on alternate view that the fishers Mogera actually could have
been an ancient offshoot of the totemic Mugera tribes under discussion.
Stratification:
The Mugera were considered to be inferior to Billavas at a point in the history
may be around 16th century, as we can understand from the legends of Billava twin heroes
Koti and Chennayya and their contemporary Mugera twins Mudda and Kalala.
However, it is explained in the references cited that the Mugeras also considered
other tribal communities such as Koraga, Mansa, Mundala etc as inferior to them in
social status. This point reveals that social stratification was prevailing
among the ancient Tulu communities probably as a result of sheer rivalry or as
per the theory of survival of the fittest.
It is evident that migrations and settling of
tribes took place in episodes. And every batch of new settlers tried to
impose the superiority of their acquired cultural progress over the older
batch of settled 'backward' tribes. (Thus the social stratification in the land is not
exclusively due to the division of castes or ‘ Varnashrama’ theory as commonly
assumed)
Evolution
of Tulu Language: The presence of numerous antique words exclusive to Tulu and absent
in other Dravidian sister languages, suggests existence of words derived from the
ancient tribal communities that settled in this land.
There are clear indications that early tribes
had their own distinct language(s) which was/were different from Tulu and other
Dravidian languages. During the course of evolution, probably after 2nd
century CE, Tulu language occupied a dominant position in the coastal region and the
descendants of the ancient tribes were forced to forget their original language
and gradually switch over to the dominant language of Tulu. In the process of
cultural amalgamation and assimilation, the Tulu has liberally has acquired and adopted words
from earlier languages. This explains the conclusion of the linguists who have
inferred that Tulu language shows combination of South central and Southern
Dravidian linguistic features.
Bari: One
small and fine example is the adoption of the word “bari” in Tulu. The word
‘bari’ in ancient Indian languages meant ‘house’. In ancient days it was used
to identify the person from the address of the house he originated. Thus ‘bari’
system of tagging the name of an individual’s house as a mark of his identity
came into being. (Compare with Aadhar system of present day).
The pre-Tulu system of Bari lineage identities
was adopted by the speakers of Tulu language as a matter of convenience.
However, Tulu language had another word ‘bari’ which meant a side. Thus nowadays Tulu people believe that the
word ‘bari’ means a side. In Kannada, they have modified “bari” into “bali”.
Some Kannada people have changed the word “bali” (= a side) to “balli” which
means a creeper! This should serve as an example of the unintended changes to the meaning conveyed by the same words during the protracted course of evolution.
Ancient words: There are several ancient words which appear unique to dalit communities of Tulunadu, such as, for example: tullel (=marriage), chapparambu (=seven hooded crown; (worn as headgear by Mugerlu Spirit impersonators), partana (= ballad, song; pari+tana; compare with pad+tana.), Kāpaḍa (=community leader) etc.
REFERENCES
Abhaya
Kumar Kaukradi Dr. (1997) Mugeraru: Jananga Janapada Adhyayana (Kannada). Kannada and Culture
Directorate, Bengaluru and Karnataka Tulu Sahitya Academi, Mangaluru. 320 p.
Koira
N. Balepuni Dr.(2010) Mugerara Dudi kunitagalu: Svaroopa mattu
Sanskriti. (Kannada) Dudi Prakashana. Balepuni,Bantwala Taluk, Dakshina
Kannada. Xii+8+246 p.
Vamana
Nandavara, Dr. (2001) Koti Chennaya. Janapadiya Adhyayana
(Folkloristic study) (Kannada). Hemanshu
Prakashana. Mangaluru. 420 p.
* *
Tailpiece
The proper
name or surname of "Mugera" is commonly found in some African countries.
Incidentally, “Mugera” in Lulogooli Bantu language (Kenya, Africa) means a river. Compare the cited African word and its
meaning with that in Tulu, where the “muger” means a floodplain or flank of a river.
R
