412. A look at morphemes ma, mi, mu, mo, etc

In grammar, we know that ‘the smallest linguistic unit within a word that carry a meaning is known as a morpheme”.  We have discussed some morphemes in general and specifically some others in our earlier Posts.

Water (Neeru =ನೀರು) is held sacred in all religions.  We have discussed it in our latest Post-373: On the trail of morpheme ‘Nu/ Noo’. It has also touched upon related words Ne/ Danu/ Da/ Dar, etc.  We are now seized of the opportunity to say more about morphemes which relate to water.  They are Mi or Mee, Mu, Mo, Mar, Mer and so on.  These heritage words are found in world languages, reminding one that they are originated from the same primary source,  that is a proto language. 

‘Ma’ means water as we get from Sage ‘Manu’, the writer of famous Manu smriti (Laws of Manu).  What Manu is to Indians, Noah is to Westerners.  They are the Boatmen who rescued humanity from extinction from the Great Deluge (Maha Jala Pralaya). 

We have collected some word-units, which has come to our notice in languages, including Tulu.  This would bring home the point, we are discussing.

Ma+yim (Hebrew) = Water.

Med+ini (Sanskrit) = The Earth (which came out of water).

Medini in legends

According to the legends, there was water everywhere after the Great Diluvial period.  Lord Vishnu was resting on a (big) Lotus Leaf in Yoga Nidra (= Yogik sleep, a state of consciousness between waking and sleeping) in the Ocean.   Madu and Kaitabha originated from the ears of Vishnu during his sleep.  They frightened Lord Brahma, the creator, who was sitting on a lotus sprouted from the navel of Vishnu and was thinking about the creation of Cosmos.  The frightened Brahma invoked the primordial Goddess Devi.  Vishnu, who woke up from the disturbances created by the Danavas, killed both the Danavas, lifting them up above the water and placing them on his thighs in sitting posture.  He sliced the two bodies six times and hence twelve pieces (two heads, two torsos, four arms, and four legs).  Thus, the Earth was considered to be created from their dead bodies and these twelve pieces represent the twelve seismic plates of earth.  The earth is called as ‘Medini’.

 In another version, Kaitabha was slained by Devi.  Vishnu is called as Madusudana (Killer of Madu) and Devi as Kaitabhi (Killer of Kaitabh).  This scene is enacted in Tulu Nadu’s folk-art of singing, dancing and drama, known as Yakshagana Bayalata (= Field Drama) in Devi Mahatme.

Mu+dar (Tulu) = Alluvial soil, deposited during floods in the fields.  This soft soil is very fertile. Mudar mannu is very much in need by potters.

Mu+dar Muttu (Tulu and ‘t’ is pronounced as in butt) = First menstrual flow.

Mudale (Tulu) and Makara (Sans.) = Crocodile, which habitats in fresh water, such as rivers, lakes, wetlands and in brackish water and salt water.  ‘Mosale Kanniru’ (meaning crocodile tears) is a famous allegory for hypocritical tears.  (Scientifically, these are salt water, shed by crocodile to get rid of the excess salt in its body.)

Mir = A lake (as in Kashmir ;  Lake of Kashyapa Rishi).

Mosaru = Curd (a watery substance derived from milk)

Meenu = Fish (a vertebrate living in water).

Mār (Tulu) = A cultivable land (as in Bākimār (= farming field in front of a house), Palimār (= a large rice field).

Eeme (Tulu)/Aame (Kannada)/Koorma (Sans.) = Tortoise (a four-legged reptile enclosed in a horny shell).

A family-friend of Vishwanath forwarded a song in English, sung by Mohamed Rafi, the music maestro of Hindi/Urdu Songs in Bollywood. This is the only English song sung by him at the United Nations Organization in 1970.  Readers may hear this in YouTube.  The thematic line (= Pallavi*) of this song runs as follows:

“Although we hail from different lands

we share one earth, sky and sun.

Remember friends, world is one”

We feel, it is not out of place if we repeat what is said in Encyclopedia Britannica:

“……all existing human speech is one in the essential characteristics which we have thus far noted or shall hereafter have to consider, even as humanity is one in its distinction from lower animals – the differences are in non-essentials”.

Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune

[Note: * Pallavi is a thematic line or musical tune of a song.  It is a cycle and repeated after each stanza of a poem.]

Suggested Reading

1. Post-362/29.08.2016 – Morphemes in Tulu Place Names,

2. Post-373/21.12.2016: On the Trail of morpheme ‘Nu/Noo’ and all other Posts on Tulu Place Names.

3.  Noah & Human Etymology - by Bengst Saga

411. Jāl (ಜಾಲ್) : as a place-name element

The detailed and comprehensive   study of  names in all aspects (“Onomastics”) as well as its branch, the general study of place names (“Topomastics”) has interesting outcomes, often   littered with unintended confusions. There are several villages ending with suffix of jāl (ಜಾಲ್) (or related sounds) in Tulu/Kannada areas of the West coast, like Kaipunjal, Heranjāl, Kodijāl, Renjāla, Kurinjāl, Kodinjāl, Neerchāl,  etc.

We shall analyse a couple of place names exemplified in Tulu Nighantu under the term Jāl.

Jāl(u) (ಜಾಲ್)

Jāl’ (or ‘Jālu)’ in Tulu language means a  levelled , usually large and enclosed,  ground in front of a house. In other words it is a courtyard.  Women-folk of the   house always keep it spec and clean. 

‘Jāl’ is ideal place for thrashing harvested paddy and for drying boiled paddy also before pounding to get rice grains.  One must have heard the proverb which is in vogue in Tulu Nadu:

ಅಪ್ಪೆ ಎಡ್ಡೆ ಆಂಡ ಬಾಲೆ  ಎಡ್ಡೆ, ಜಾಲ್ ಎಡ್ಡೆ ಆಂಡ ಅರಿ ಎಡ್ಡೆ.  

(English transcription: Appe eḍḍe aanda bāle eḍḍe; jālu eḍḍe ānḍa ari eḍḍe).

Proverb tells: “If mother is good (in character), the child also grows up as a good one.  Likewise, if courtyard of the house is kept clean, rice (produced by de-husking the paddy in the courtyard) is also good and clean (free of stones and pebbles). 

Kaipunjāl  and  Herenjāl

We come across one of the entries for ‘Jaal’ in the Tulu Lexicon (Page 1318) wherein it states that ‘jāl’ is used as an element in place-names, such as Kaipunjāl (near Kaup) (ಕೈಪುಂಜಾಲ್) and Herenjaal (ಹೆರಂಜಾಲ್) (near Byndoor).  

Analysis : When we dissect these two place names, which are invariably compound words, we get:

1.  Kai + punja + āl,  where kai means a tributary or a stream; punja means a rocky area, and  āl means watery place¹.  

Kaipunjāl is a sub-village of Uliyāragoli of former Kaup Māgane.  Kaup (Kapu)  is now elevated as a Taluk of Udupi District. These streams and water bodies on rocky plains feed Udyavara River as a tributary.   These tributary gets swollen during high tides and rainy season.

Alternatively, if we split the word as ‘kaipun+jāl’, the main element ‘kaipun’?  becomes meaningless. Therefore we can infer that the spatial suffix in Kaipunjal is not jāl but only āl.

2. Here (= big)+ inja (= area) + āl (=water-body).

Or,  it could  have been Heren+jāl : where ‘heren’ stands for old Kannada/ Kundapura Kannada form of bigger or larger and jāl for courtyard.

We can find such derivatives of related ‘enja/inja  word elements in  several other place names. Eg.‘anje’ as in Bannanje and Innanje;‘inje’ in Elinje, and ‘inja’ in Karinja, Panja and so on.

Other -Jal places

Ranjal= Ranja+al. Ranja/Renja is a fragrant flowering tree. Often known as Spanish berry tree in English or Bakula tree in Sanskrit poetic works. -Al represents a settlement near a water body.

Kurinjāl =Kurinja+al. Kurinja or Kurunji is a blue colored mountain flower, famous for blooming once in twelve years. (kuru=mountain; kurunji= the flower on mountain).

Kodinjāl = kodi(n)+jāl.  Kodi=corner; jāl=courtyard. The Kodinjal  appearing in Tulu PaDdanas is also called Kodaje.

Summing up

There are distinct place names with suffix of jāl in Tulu toponyms  such as Kodijāl  but some of the places having ending  sounds of  jāl  like Kaipunjal,  might have been originally  intended,  by our ancestors as (punja) + āl   names in reality.

Linked posts in this blog:

1. TuluOnomastics (Post-166 / 14-1- 2009),

2. Kaipunjal & Kapu (Post-69/10-01-2008:

3. Kaipunjal& Kaup (Post  182/07.04.2009:

4. Uliyaragoli to Malpe (Post  183   ).

-Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune

410. Homonyms in Tulu language.

The antique vs.the modern: Relics of  regalia in Barkur town, Udupi district.

Ancient words that have survived in a region, when properly recognized and analysed without bias, are like old antique coins that can be useful tools in deciphering the paleo (past) socio-linguistic environment of the terrain. This is true of coastal Karnataka and the Tulunadu. In this context, I would like to point out that some of our old words, inclusive of place names, have been grossly misinterpreted, especially because of the dual or more than two possible meanings associated with them.

 The homonyms in English language are similar sounding words with differing meanings. For example, the English homonymous word ‘fair’ basically has dual meanings such as (1) a festive congregation or exhibition or (2) justified, free from dishonesty.  In the similar vein, we can find homonym words, words sounding similar but with differing meaning in Tulu language.

A homophone is a type of homonym where the sound is similar but the spelling and the meaning are different. Homonyms and homophones in a language may possibly indicate incorporation of similar sounding words from ancient cultures that prevailed once upon a time in the region.

Homonyms and homophones prevailing in Tulu language have a special historical significance as they can through significant light on the obscure aspects of socio-linguistic heritage we have inherited.

 We shall discuss in this post a few Tulu and relevant coastal homonyms and homophones, whose original meanings have largely been either obscure or misinterpreted or misunderstood features of our heritage.

Bari

Bari is a well known common Tulu word used for distinguishing the inherited surname of an individual. A person can have two “bari” tags inherited from his or her two parents, but usually matrilineal ‘bari’ is recognized and honored especially while deciding traditional matrimonial alliances in community circles.

Bari in Tulu is a homonymous word. Even though, the word ‘bari’ is a common word in Tulu, most of the Tulu people consider the ordinary meaning of the word: namely, the side. In Kannada areas of the coast, the word has been morphed into ‘bari’ > ‘bali’ or   even “balli” especially in Kundapura and in parts of Uttara Kannada. Interestingly, the Kannada words ‘bali’ means proximity and “balli” means tendril or creeper or thread.

However, the ancient word ‘bari’ has another meaning namely, the house. In ancient days a person in the community was identified by the name of his house!  This practice was also common in Kerala where they use the word “illam” or the house. This original meaning of the word “bari” has unfortunately been forgotten during the course of prolonged history!

Similarly, especially in northern India, in ancient days, the persons were identified (or tagged) by the name of their cowsheds (‘goshāla’) or the “gothra”.

Incidentally, the homonymous word ‘bari’ signifies the ancient heritage of Tulu language. The word was a part of Munda/Prakrit language and sub-cultures that prevailed in this land during early centuries of the Common Era. The word ‘bari’, having the meaning of house, still exists in eastern and northeastern parts of India especially in Bengali and other allied languages.

Nari

‘Nari’  (short a; ನರಿ ) is not a common word in Tulu. It is a common Kannada word for jackal. The common word for jackal in Tulu is ‘kuduke’. However, you can find place names in Tulunadu such as ‘Naringana’(ನರಿಂಗಣ) and ‘Narimogaru’ (ನರಿಮೊಗರು).

The ancient word ‘nari’ in tribal languages represented tiger (not jackal) and we can find this still preserved and existing in the neighboring Kodava language. Incidentally, Tulu has forgotten the original tribal word ‘nari’ which has been shifted to jackal and original tribal word replaced by ‘pili’ (ಪಿಲಿ), a word from Dravida lingual lineage.
The word " nari" in Tulu has another meanings such as (a) dented  (b) broken or (c) wet, soft and rotten.  But these meanings would not appear appropriate in terms of toponyms.

 Nayi

Nāyi (ನಾಯಿ) is a common name for dog in most of the Dravidian languages including Tulu and Kannada. Therefore, while analyzing   place names like Nayampali, Nayibasadi etc. in Tulu region, some of our earlier researchers have attributed the meaning of dog to the word nāyi. It is interesting to note that there are ancient place names all over India containing the prefix of nayi. The word nayi (ನಯಿ), originally   derived from Prakrit, in all India context suggests new and not dog!

Historical correlations as pointed out above also suggest that the Prakrit was a dominant language in parts of south India especially ancient equivalents of Maharashtra, Karnataka and coastal Tulunadu. Thus it is logical to assume that the word nayi in ancient place names of Tulunadu also means new rather than dog! Further it was a common practice to name new towns with prefix tags suggestive of newness such as pudu, posa, hosa, nayi, nava etc.

Gokarna

Gokarna is a well known coastal place in Uttara Kannada district, often interpreted as northern boundary of ancient Tulunadu. The place name is usually interpreted based on its usual sound that echoes a Sanskrit word go+karna which simply means ear of the cow. 

However, if we look for Prakrit words in the place name then we find that the word gokar means serpent, snake or Nāga. Since –Na is a common spatial suffix indicative of settlement or village (as we find in place names like Marne, Muddann, Belmann, etc), the Prakrit word Gokarna is equivalent of Nāgur or even Uchila in connotation. As a counter proof, we find numerous villages across India containing the word gokar including the place name Gokarana. (see: Post 366. Mystery of Gokarna and Havyaka).

Thus,  gokar (Prakrit) = Nāga, serpent . Gokar+Na= Nāga village; Nāgur.

Further the Gokarna region is also known as  Havika, Haviga(> Haiga) or Havyaka. A simple analysis of the word reveals that these words are Kannada equivalents of the word Gokarna.

 (Haviga= hāvu+ga. Havika= hāvu +ka;  hāvu=serpent; ka or ga= village).

Gokarna, Havyaka and the Nāga cult

It is well known that the ancient cult of Nāga worship, once widely prevalent all over India, has remained steadfast in coastal Karnataka, especially in Tulunadu. The original meaning associated with the word Gokarna and Havika (Havyaka), as explained here, further strengthens our notion of historical prevalence of the ancient Naga cult in Uttara Kannada, where the influence of Nāga cult is under waning stage as a consequence of domination of subsequent religious cults.

Summary

Homonyms and their dual meanings discussed in this post are:

(a) Bari (ಬರಿ) =1.Side (Dravida origin); 2.House (Munda derivation)

(b) Nari (ನರಿ) =1.Jackal 2. Tiger (Tribal origin, also exists now in Kodava)

(c) Nayi=1.Dog (< nāyi, ನಾಯಿ); 2. New. ( ನಯಿ:Prakrit derivation).

(d) Gokarna (ಗೋಕರ್ಣ) =1. Cow’s  ear. (Sanskrit   derivation);  2. Nāga village (< gokar+Na. Prakrit derivation)

Feedback

Readers may contribute their considered opinions in the comment section, with or without including their independent analysis of words and place names, for the benefit of healthy discussions and further interpretations.

R

409. Non-Greek words in Oxyrhynchus papyrus No. 413

In the year 1897, archaeological excavations in a place called Oxyrhynchus in Lower Egypt unearthed a number of ancient papyri documents. A papyrus is a vegetal material prepared from the pithy stem of a watery plant. In ancient Mediterranean areas, before the days of invention of writing paper, the papyri were used for writing, drawing or painting instead of paper. These papyri discovered at Oxyrhynchus were subsequently transcribed and published by British historians Bernard Payne Grenfell and Arther Surridge Hunt in the year 1903 through Oxford University Press. One of the Oxyrhynchus papyri, No 413 (often denoted as P. Oxy 413) on which a Greek farce (drama) has been written, also known as “Charition mime”, dated approximately second century 150 CE, has been found to contain several non-Greek words. Charition was the name of the lead lady character in the farce.

A German Professor, Dr. Eugene Hultzsch, an Indologist, expert in Sanskrit and Dravidian languages, was the first to recognize Dravidian “Kanarese” (Kannada) words in the Charition mime. The English translation of his paper was published in the Journal of Royal Asiatic Society in 1904.

Mysore Archeological Report for the year 1926 -27 carried an article on the said Oxyrhynchus papyrus No 413 and interpreted the non-Greek words to be words of Kannada language. In that, it was interpreted to have been connected with Malpe seashore near Udupi on the West Coast of Karnataka India. Subsequently, S Srikantaiah published a paper on this issue in Quarterly of Mythic Society of Bengaluru and interpreted the non Greek words to be of Tamil language.

Further a number of Kannada experts like R. Shama Shastri (then Director of Archeological researches in Mysore), B.A. Saletore, Hampa Nagarajaiah etc have looked into these strange words and have offered their opinions interpreted as Kannada words. However, some Western authors like L.D Barnett (1926) have expressed their serious doubts regarding the ‘Kanarese’ (Kannada) interpretations.

Manjeshwara Govinda Pai published an analytical review on the topic in the year 1929, which has been reprinted in the commemorative volume (“Govinda Pai Samshodhana Samputa: 1883-1963”). Budhanand Shivalli (1982) in “Tulu Patero” also reviewed the discussions on the said Oxyrhynchus papyrus.

Excerpts of the last two write ups shall be discussed in this post, of course peppered with our analytical observations.

Theme of  Charition mime (Oxyrhynchus papyrus No.413)

A boat carrying a group of Greek tourists consisting of a young lady, Charition and others was wrecked up while sailing in the Indian Ocean and the inmates reached a coastal village apparently, in the West Coast of India. The girl and servants were held captive in a moon temple under the aegis of local King or chieftain. Later her brother came searching for her and found her in the temple and planned to take her home. A wine party was arranged in the village by the brother.  While the chieftain was intoxicated in the party the brother rescued his sister and takes her back   to his homeland by boat.

Greek alphabets

Govinda Pai (1929) has pointed out that the Greek alphabets are basically deficient in aspirates, so as to express Indian words clearly. There are specifically no- cha (ಚ), chha (ಛ), ja (ಜ), jha (ಝ), jna(ಞ); Ta (ಟ), Tha (ಠ), Da (ಡ),  Dha (ಢ), Na (ಣ); sha (ಶ), shha (ಷ), ha (ಹ), lha (ಳ)  in the Greek alphabets. So interpretations of non Greek words in the mime should necessarily take heed of these absent alphabets.

Indian seashore : Malpe?

The mention of “Indas Pelagos” (=Indian Ocean), “Indas Promoi” (Indian chiefs) and reference to the Paral…[Parolios/Paralion](=seashore) in the Greek farce, suggests that the non-Greek words could be referring to the Indian seashore. Consequently, some of the Kannada experts interpreted the phrase “malpiniak..” in the farce as ‘Malpe Nayaka’ or a chieftain of the port town of Malpe, near Udupi.

However, there are some issues in the Greek farce that do not match with the Malpe setting. Like the reference to “thea Selene” (the moon goddess), popular in Greek mythology. We have not heard of the cult of moon goddess in Karavali coast in records. Similarly, the river Psolichus apparently does not matches with any of the existing rivers around Malpe.

Yet, it has been suggested that such logical discrepancies (or apparent inaccuracies) reveal that the farce composer/writer did not actually visited India but probably heard about these Indian words and milieu  through discussions with sailors or travelers who had traveled Indian ports; and that the words were used in the farce just for fun. Even Greek historians Pliny and Ptolemy are said to have based their descriptions of ancient India based exclusively on the accounts they heard from sailors.

Probable Kannada words

Some samples of the probable Kannada words recognized or interpreted in the Greek farce by various Kannada experts are as follows:

Echousi=ಏ ಕೂಸೆ.

Kraunou=ಕರೆವನೌ, ಕರೆವನೊ

Lalle=ಅಲ್ಲೆ

Laita Lianta lalle=ಐತಾ ಅಂತಾಳಲ್ಲೆ

Laspathia=ಲೇಸು ಪಡೆಯ

Arminthi=ಆರ್ ಮಿಂದೆ?

Alemaka =ಅಲೆ ಎಮ್ಮಕ್ಕ

Minei=ಮೀಣವೆ?

Seo sarachis=ಶಿವ ಸಂರಕ್ಷಿಸು

(S)ouamesare=ಸೋಮೇಶ್ವರ

Apuleuksaar= ಆ ಪುಳೆಯ ಕಸರು.

Etc.

Probable Tulu words

If the place they arrived at was Malpe, the language around the period 150 CE should have been Tulu rather than Kannada. Budhananda Shivalli(1982) transcribed the non-Greek phrase “Malpiniak ourouk oukooubj”   into Tulu language as (“ಮಲ್ಪಿ ನಾಯ್ಕೆ ಒರೊಕು ಓಕೊಮುಜೆ”), the Malpi Nayaka does not respond at once (since he is drunk).

Besides, the transcription of one of the non-Greek word namely, “menai” (“ಮಿಯಾನಾ?”) - appears quite close to the native Tulu version of “Did you take bath?”

Shiva Prasad (1985) and Padmanabha Upadhyaya (1996) have also explored the possibility of Tulu words in the Charition mime.

Malpe or Alupe?

Govinda Pai (1929) noted that in Greek there is a practice of adding ‘m’ to words beginning with vowels ,based on the information he gathered from Liddel and Scott’s Greek English Lexicon ,p.408. (He interpreted the word “martha” in the farce   as “artha” based on this presumption.

If we extend the logic and apply it to the word “Malpiniak” in the farce, it would be:  ”Alpiniak” or Alupe Nayak!

DISCUSSION

The Charition mime in Oxyrhynchus papyrus 413 has been considered as an anonymous adaptation of earlier Greek drama “Iphigenia in Tauris” by Euripides, composed between 414 and 412 BCE. The theme of Charition mime has shades of influence of the drama of Odyssey. The farce may have been composed by an unknown writer under the influence of earlier Greek dramas such as Iphegenia and Odyssey. The writer apparently composed the theme of Charition based on the accounts he heard from sailors to Indian ports.

Thus the reference to the temple of “Thea Selene”, the Mood Goddess whose cult was prevalent in Greek region, appears strange to Indians since we have no record of Moon Goddess here. Some have tried to identify Indian God “Someshwara”, Shiva with moon, but it is not known if the cult of Someshwara existed during 2^nd century CE or earlier, as the Shambu kallu Someshwara temple at Udyavara has been estimated to be of about 9^th century CE. 

The place of action on the Indian coast has been identified as Malpe (near Udupi) based a phrase containing reference to “malpiniak..” It is possible that it was the name of the chieftain, something like Mallappa Nayka. Alternately, if we consider that the initial m in the phrase “malpiniak” was added customarily, then without initial m, the word would be:  “Alpiniak” or Alupa Nayak.

Alupe
It appears that the Alupe suburb, in eastern part of the present Mangaluru city,  was the coastal port village during the period of composition of Charition mime. The Alupe was the home town of  historically renowned Alupa kings of Tulunadu,

Why not Malpe?

Why the place could not have been Malpe, which is presently a port on the West Coast? Because during the estimated period of composition of the Charition mime (ie. about -or before- first century CE, the Western strip of present West Coast (including Malpe) was under the Sea.(Read our Post No.  On “Parashurama Shristi”).

Note that the Greek travelogues of the same period attributed to Pliny and Ptolemy have recorded port towns of “Oloikhor”a (interpreted as “Aluvakheda” or Alupe , located  in the Eastern part of Mangaluru city) and “Bacelore”  ( interpreted as Basarur, East of Kundapur). There are no mention of Malpe, Mangaluru or Kundapur in these records.

The language involved in these non-Greek words is also disputable. Recent researches (Shettar, 2007 ) suggest that in the early centuries Prakrit was the administrative language in ancient Karnataka rather than old Kannada. The Ashok edicts found in Karnataka are also in Prakrit language (300 BCE) rather than Kannada. Similar lingual situation could be deciphered in coastal regions of ancient Tulunadu.

Though Tulu was the dominant language in Karavali about 4^th century CE, before that period the available evidences suggest that either Tulu coexisted with Munda and Prakrit languages  or Prakrit/ Munda were the administrative language, as we find a rich list of place names in Tulunadu suggestive of Munda/Prakrit origin.

 I can give two simple examples to show the influence of Munda words in Tulu language during the early history: (1) The Tulu calendar year stars with the month of “Paggu”. The ‘paggu’ is a word of Munda origin which is the name of a traditional Munda festival. (2) The common word for surname in Tulu is “bari”.  Bari is another word of Munda origin which means a house (Note that word equivalent of Tulu ‘bari’ community-surname,  in our neighboring  Malayalam (Kerala) is “illam”, which also means house.)

In view of the known prevalence of Prakrit and Munda langauges in the peninsular India during the early period of Common Era, experts may need to look into these non-Greek words in the mime from the viewpoint of in Prakrit/Munda angle also.

REFERENCES

Budhananda Shivalli (1982) “Tulu Patero”: A philology and grammar of Tulu language.(in Tulu language). (ed: Dr B M Ravindra), Mandira Prakashana, Mangaluru, Karnataka, 2004, 318.p.

Govinda Pai, M. (1929 ) “Greek prahsanadalli kannaDa mAatugalu.: Oxyrhynchus Papyrus No 413” (in Kannada ). pp.67-76, In: Govinda Pai Samshodhana sampuTa (eds: Heranje Krishna Bhatta & Murulidhara Upadhya Hiriyadaka). Rashtrakavi Govinda Pai Samshodhana Kendra, MGM College, Udupi-576102.Karnataka. 1392 p.

Govinda Pai, M. (1961 ) “Udupi”. (in Kannada ). pp.647-649, In: Govinda Pai Samshodhana Samputa (eds: Heranje Krishna Bhatta & Murulidhara Upadhya Hiriyadaka). Rashtrakavi Govinda Pai Samshodhana Kendra, MGM College, Udupi-576102.Karnataka. 1392 p.

Shettar,Sh (2007) “Shangam tamiLagam mattu Kannada nAdu – nuDi: Aarambha kAlada draviDa sambandada chintane” (in Kannada). 262 p.Abhinava,Bengaluru,Karnataka,2010.

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charition_mime

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_413

www.wikivisually.com/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_413

408. Temples of Udyavara, Udupi

Ancient Shambhu-kallu Shiva temple. Rear side. Semicircular shaped architecture..

Udyavara (in present-day Udupi District) was an ancient port city, renowned for its flourishing marine trade with Arabs and Romans.  It is also remembered as one of the Capital Cities of famous Alupa Dynasty.   They ruled Tulu Nadu in circa 450 CE to 15th C.  We  get first reference of them in Halmidi Inscription of Hoysalas. The early history of this Dynasty is hidden in the secrets of history. 

_{There are several temples in and around Udupi, besides the famous Krishna Math Temples complex in Udupi proper. Most of them are known as Shakti-sthalas, being centres of worship of Sapta Matrikas (Seven Mother Goddesses).  Alupa dynasty was ruling erstwhile Tulu Nadu, spanning from Gokarna/Ankola/Baindur to Kasaragod and parts of Malenadu for nearly 1200 years uninterrupted though they became vassals of Kannada Kings at certain points of time in history.  They were Hindus and embraced Jainism after coming in contact with Hoysalas of Belur-Halebeedu.  They patronized both Hindu and Jain temples.  Udyavara witnesses many Hindu temples. Please visit our recent Posts on Mangod Subramanya  and Bramha Lingeshwar Temples at  Kuthpadi.}

_{The uniqueness of temples of Tulu Nadu is the inclusion of ancient divine spirits of original and later inhabitants and Naga shrines, inside the main temple for Vedic Gods.  This article gives glimpses of temples for Shiva and Mother Goddesses in Udyavara, located in between Udyavara Town Bus junction and Shri Dharmasthala Ayurveda College and Hospital (about 1.2 km  SW from Udupi).}

_{Shambhu kallu Kailaseshwar- Temple}

_{Shiva was the family-deity of Alupas at Udyavara as they were traditionally Shaivas.  This temple is built on a rocky hill and hence the popular name Shambhu-kallu Temple, facing east. Alternately, it is known as Ballaya paade. Shambhu-kallu is corrupted to Chambu-kallu, Tembukal, Tembikal, Tembkalin (or even to Sem(b)ikal) in local tongue, Tulu.  The exterior shape of this temple in the rear side   resembles the back of an elephant. ( Readers would do well if they read our Post-112, May 1, 2008: The temples of Karavali – Early Phase.)}

In ancient history, it is mentioned as ‘Shambu Shaila’ in Skanda Purana, hence the name Shaileshwara. The sign board at the entrance lane (off main road), leading to the temple on the north side of rocky hill, welcomes devotees with the description “Markandeya Pratisthapita Shri Shambhu Shaileshwara Devasthana & Shri Prasanna Somanatheshwara Devasthana."

_{Temple complex for Matrikas}

_{On western side of the aforesaid Shiva temple, there lies temple complex for seven deities, including Ganesha,  along the crossing road across the Udyavara Town-Kinnimulki - Udupi main road.  This complex is known as ‘Shambukallu Shri Virbhadra Durgaparameshwari Temple’.}

_{The main temple (facing east) is consecrated for three Mother Goddesses, namely Savitri, Gayatri and Saraswati.     The statues are ‘mrinmaya murthis’, being made of earth-soil.  The legend says these murthis were first built by Rishi Markaandeya.}

·  The Mother Goddess statues are about 7 ft. height.  They are   beautifully and attractively fashioned out of earthen soil. 
        _{Right side of these statues, the statue of Virabhadra Swami is standing in fierce mood.  He is the guardian deity of the temple.   The statue is made of red sandal wood in full size.  The statue was remade artistically during renovation of the temple and consecrated in April 2018.}

     _{Coming out from the main temple, we find two more temples:    One for Goddess Mahankali on the east in front of the main temple.  She was given a separate place outside by her sisters, as she is fond of animal blood offerings.     The other for Panjurli, popularly known as Tembikal Panjurli (or Semikal Panjurli) in local parlance, on the north, near Mahankali temple.  Devotees from neighbouring villages come here annually to give their votive offerings, despite having their own sacred ‘mancha’ or shrine for Panjurli at their households.}

·        Legend of Markandeya

The legend in Skanda Purana (Sahyadri Khand) says that these murthis were originally built by Rishi Markaandeya, who did penance here in Saraswat-vana, which is on the west of Shambhu Shaila. Shambhu Shaila with a sacred pond on its North, lies three 'yojana's to the West of Sahyadri ranges. Issueless Mrikand Muni of Sage Bhrigu clan along with wife Marudwati  meditated on Lord Shiva for a son.  They are blessed with an intelligent and pious son, destined to live a short span of sixteen years.  Sage Mrikand advises his son to pray Lord Shiva to ward off the God of Death ,Yama.  Pleased by his worship, Shiva advises Markandeya to worship Durga endowed with three qualities Satvika, Rajasa and Tamasa).  Durga (in three forms) chases away God of Death with help of Mahankali (a fierce form of Durga), Veerabhadra, Panjurli and other Shiva Ganas.

The story of Markandeya is well-known.  It is at variance with stories mentioned in other Puranas, Bhagavata and Maha Bharata.  Lord Shiva kills Yama when the noose cast to take away the soul of Markandeya, while in meditation, is entangled to Shiva Linga.  So Shiva gets the name of ‘Kaalantaka’.  There are many Shiva temples in India, connecting it to be the place of penance of Markandeya.  To cite some examples, there are such temples in Kerala, Varanasi, Kurukshetra and Yamunotri.

Perhaps, the mythological story of Durga is taken from Markandeya Purana, supposed to have been written on the Bank of River Narmada.  It is said that the earliest version of it was written around c. 250 CE.  Devi Mahatmya was added to it later on around C. 400-600 CE. 
  There is a Naaga-bana (holy grove for snakes), supposed to be the anthill ('valmika') where Markandeya did penance.   We can see his Padukas (feet), being worshipped at this place. 

Siddhi Vinayaka Temple

Going up further westward on Udyavara Town - Pithrodi Road, there is a famous Ganesha Temple.  It is said, this temple is older than the Shambu-kallu temples. Besides the main Deity, there is a separate shrine on south side, dedicated to Divine Spirit Varte.

Matrilineal System

_{Alupas were followers of matrilineal system of heritance.  Alupa King Soyideva made his nephew Kulashekhra Bankideva (son of Alupa Princess Chikkayitayi aka Krishnayitayi and Hoysala Veera Ballala III) as successor to the throne.  According to some legends Kulashekhara came to be known as Bhutala Pandya. (There are disputes in this issue regarding the real identity of Bhutala Pandya).  He introduced Aliya Santana Kattu-kattalegalu in Barkur-Mangaluru Hobalies.  His injunctions were honoured even in Courts during colonial rule (Read our Post- 311.Reflections on a Tulu Proverb: On falling of a tree).   The worship of Divine Mother and temples dedicated to her is wide-spread in Tulu Nadu.}

_{-            Hosabettu Vishwanatha}