250. From ‘OLA SAVARI’ to ‘VARASARI’

 A decorated Bhoota (Spirit) with attendants, [Courtesy: :www.Mangalore.com]

Words, in any language, are outcome of an idea, experience (mental and physical), objects and events. Physical experience includes seeing and hearing. Sounds, that resemble those associated with an object or action to be named, becomes an onomatoepic word – an outcome of seeing and hearing. Besides having their own and original meanings, some of the words have acquired or derived meanings.


Varasari
‘Varasari’, an antique word in Tulu, was engaging my mind for quite some time.
If one had spent ones childhood in Tulunadu, one would have heard some of the following phrases or idiomatic usages in Tulu language:
1) Admonition from elders: “Mulpa varasari malpochhi, pidayi po_du gobbule” (Meaning: Don’t run here and there nor make noise here. Go and play outside). ‘Varasari ‘here means noisy movements to and fro and in all directions, creating obstruction to elders in doing their work.
2) Unkemptness and disorder: “Illada varasaridu odegula povera aapuji” (Meaning: Things of the house are lying here and there, making the place untidy. Putting them in order takes so much of time that I am not finding time to go out).
3) Disunity in a house: Sentence at point (2) may also mean disunity in a house on account of chaos. Mark this statement: “Illada varasariye muggyuji.” (There is no end to disturbing activities in the house).

Spirit worship
Narrating a nostaliagic childhood episode may not be out of place. I take you way back to about 65 years to Hosabettu, then a sleepy coastal village without much modernity creeping in its stride. The Primary School was nestled between a verdant ‘Bailare’ (a stretch of low-lying, water-logged agricultural land) in the East and greenery all around with cashew, mango, coconut and casuarinas trees. A spacious ‘Goda’ (=gymnasium) – open on all sides - was standing on the North. Teacher (in charge 2 to 3 classes in those days) used take out pupils to this Goda for memorising the Tables, teaching numbers and letters, to be written on sandy surface. When teacher was late or absent from class, children used to play a game, having relevance to Bhoota (Divine Spirit) worship. Hosabettu has a Jarandaya Shrine where a 3-day Nemotsava is taking place in nights, concerning Jarandaya, Jumadi and Banta/Bunta Spirits. Fag end of the annual ceremony, a game is played with ‘Marlu Bhoota’ (In some Temples or Bhoota shrines ball games are played in adjoining agricultural field).
Taking a cue from this game, children used to play a game of ‘Marlu Bhoota’. The boy, who was always made to play the part of ‘Marlu Bhoota’, was Laxman (son of ‘Mulyada Poojari'1 Jannu). A fake impersonator holds a stick or some other twigs, while Other boys act as teasers and tormentors. Leader of the group entreats the Bhoota by saying “Marlu Bhoota pattodu pannaga pattodu, budodu pannaga budodu” (The mad spirit should possess the impersonator when told to do so and leave his body when told to leave). On beating of drums (i.e. brass plates carried to school for midday meal) and shrill music of wind instruments (made of coconut leaves) the impersonator starts to shiver as if he is possessed by the spirit and beats whosoever comes near him for teasing in words and in action, i.e. making fun of the spirit by throwing whatever things comes to hand. This game turns violent when either impersonator or any teaser is badly hurt. When it turns to personal fighting, the spirit is pacified and told to stop manifesting. Movements, shouting, swearing and littering the area with dried coconut or palm leaves, twigs and shreds of roof-tiles bring home the meaning of ‘Varasari’. (Note: In the real ritual, burning torches are used).

Ritualistic Connection
‘Varasari’ is a variant of ‘Ola Savari’ – a terminology connected with ritualistic worship of Divine Spirits of Tulunadu. Tulu Lexicon gives various versions of ‘Olasavari’, such as ‘Olasari, Varasari, Olasaru, O_lasiri (Oolasiri) or Vaalasiri’. It means “A ritual of Bhoota worship in which the Bhoota impersonator goes out of the arena in procession.”

A decorated Bhoota in trance.(courtesy: www)

‘Bhootaradhane ’ – an Overview
Bhootaradhane (Divine Spirit Worship) is a time-honoured ritualistic tradition of Brihad Tulunadu spread from Gokarn to Kasaragod (but now limited to Dakshina Kannada and Udupi Districts of Karnataka). Northern parts of Kerala, which includes Kasaragod District, evince Bhootaradhane, in the form of Theyyam.
There is a subtle difference between ritual and religion. Religion is a system of specific beliefs, based on doctrines or theologies, and revelations, involving the worship of supernatural forces or beings. Rites or rituals are a set of symbolic actions, formulated by a religion and/or Religious Gurus (teachers) or by the traditions of an individual family, community or a society, comprising a village or cluster of villages (‘seeme ‘or ‘maagane’s). Religious rites are religion-centric and traditional rituals have landed down from pre-societies, centring around hero-worship; say of Kings and their chieftains after death (Compare this with Paraohs – Priest Kings - of Egypt). These traditional rituals are not falling into any specific religious category.
With Brahmanism taking root in Tulunadu and synchronising with Dravidian cultures, the Bhoota shrines are located inside main Temples of Vedic Gods or vice versa. Being super-natural beings and remaining attendant to main deities, they protect their devotees. Hence there is conceptual statement in Tulu: “Deveregu dooteru, nambina manushyaregu daateru” (=Attendants to God and Benevolent to believing masses). Fear for these Divine Spirits – Upholders of Dharma - is more than that for main deities.
Communities of a region take part in Bhoota rituals, irrespective of religious leanings. All aspects of the life, teachings and after-death-life of great and noble historical figures are represented in these rituals. Their frailties notwithstanding, these legendary figures attained divinity after death. There are several historical figures, such as Chamundi/ Ma(h)ankaldi, Posappe, Panjurli, Maisandaya, Ullaya, Ullalthi, Jarantaya, Jumadi (Dhoomavati), Babbarya (Bobbarya), Vishnumurti, Varte, Kallurti, Kalkuda, Guliga, Koddabbu (Koteda Babbu), Koti & Chennaya (twins), Siri, Abbaga, Daraga, Pilichamnundi, Nandigona and so on. Saga of these heroes are perpetuated in lengthy oral poems, popularly called as PaDdanas, some of which are now documented. These PaDdanas are enacted during annual or specific festivals, called by different names, eg. Kola, (Dharmada) Nema, Tambila, Agelu, Bandi, Jatra, Maime, Mechchi, Kajambu, Jaalata, Kenda Seve, Ottekola, Panarata, etc.

There are some variations in ritualistic actions and text of songs due to regional difference and dearth of traditional singers with full knowledge of these orally handed down epic songs.
There are classified glossary evolved through past and present societies regarding flag-hoisting, special gestures, words for invoking and entreating deities, assurance given by oracles, specific make up and ornamental dress, dances to special music according to the sequence of ritual performance, pompous procession of initiated persons, called Poojaris, and dance performers, along with retinue of high-ranked persons (‘Gurikaras’, i.e. community leaders, and other dignitaries) to the beating of drums and blowing of trumpets and wind pipes.

Purpose of worship
1. Obliging religious and traditional beliefs of individuals, groups or societies, as a mark of respect and submission - an awe-inspired reverence.
2. Satisfying emotional needs during personal discomfitures, fears, and epidemics.
3. Spiritual needs.
4. Social solidarity: It is an occasion to extend and confirm social bonds by sharing common beliefs. It creates and strengthens a sense of group identity.
5. Social justice: Strengthening moral education. Right and wrong deed by an individual, group or a village is decided at the instance of divine spirit with tacit approval/acceptance of main deity of a particular temple.

Ola savari, Olasari to Varasari
Annual rituals ,as aforesaid, last for a day or two or three days, except ‘Deyi Nalike’, as in vogue in region to region. The first day is inauguration by taking ‘Bhandara’ from dedicated store-house and raising the dedicated flag (Kodi eruni). ‘Angana Seve’ (cleaning, decorating the pandol and invoking the deities (Daivas) through initiated persons, called Poojaris. The second or third day is called the ‘Ola Savari’ It is the inter-action of Poojaris and Trance-drama performers (impersonators). Tradition holds that these dance performers are from Nalike, Pambada, Parava, etc. They are artists, fashioned out of customs, to sing and dance according to epic lore and are sustained by Temples, Chieftains, village groups and communities.
‘Deyi Nalike’ is a composite Bhoota ritual in a royal household, or a big family for offering annual oblations for many Bhootas, one after another. This festival lasts for several days with rituals relevant to each and every Bhoota, dance and entertainments.

Invocation stages
There are different stages of invocation of Divine Spirits in these traditional dances. Following will give an idea about this ritual to an outsider.
Osaya Sandi (=Invocatory singing): A particular PadDana (Folk Epic) is sung by the Bhoota impersonator or mostly by his family in front of the idol or mask of the concerned Bhoota in order to invoke a Bhoota. ‘Tembare’ (a small drum) is beaten by Paratti (wife of Parava). There is saying: “Tembare pandavodu paratti, kola kattodu parave (Paratti has to beat the small drum, Parava has to dance). It means, essentially each one has to do his job assigned to him.
Siri singara: Auspicious costume, made of tender leaves of coconut. Leaves (in one piece) are split into thin strings and this piece is wrapped up from waist downwards. There are specific steps for this ‘siri kattuni’ dance with music. Bhoota impersonator goes into trance with this sacred dress. This is called ‘Siri singarada echchi’ (Dance-movements with ‘siri singara’ until being possessed by the particular Spirit).
Gaggarada Echchi: ‘Gaggara’ is a big boat-shaped anklet with jingling bells set inside. ‘Beetal leaf with nut’ is given to impersonator as a mark of permission to wear the ‘gaggara’. This permission is called as ‘gaggarada boolya’. Bhoota impersonators (mostly two – one for main deity and the other for his attendant) make several rounds to and fro, swerving, frolicking and leaping, running and making gestures to assembled dignitaries in front row or seated in assigned structure opposite to the pandol, where masks (muga) of deities are adorned, seeking permission for tying the jingling anklet. They dance according to changing music tunes till getting possessed or going into trance.

Ani kattuni: Ani is a kind of ornamental, halo-like structure made of areca spathes, cloth, tender coconut leaves or metal materials and worn on the back by the Bhoota dancer. Dance with ‘ani’ (crown) is a last leg of awe-inspiring Bhoota dance. There is inter-action with initiated Poojaris, conversation between the possessed impersonator and Gurikaras (in case of family festival, chief householder), show of approval, annoyance by shouting, disapproval by banging the ‘jeetige’(= a torch, made of cloth wrapped round the end of a stick in metal cup and soaked in oil, usually held before the deity or priest) to his chest every now and then, pacification of deity by entreating words (madu panpini) by Gurikaras and dignitaries, representing many castes). There is a pompous and tumultuous procession around the main shrine. There is a ‘badikara bali or badikara paravuni’ dance ritual, involving initiated person (Paatri) holding the ‘badikara’ (= a pot containing auspicious objects) and Bhoota impersonator.
Madipu: Prayer by devotees and enquiry, settlement and assurances by Bhoota impersonator in trance by giving ‘gandha prasada’. After ‘madipu’, Bhandara is taken back to the ear-marked store room.

Conclusion
‘Sari’ means to move. In short, inside and outside to and fro movements of invocated Divine Spirits, with frisking, leaping, swerving, gesturing, etc. to the deafening music of wind instruments and drums are called Olasari and Varsari during Kola or Nema Festival. Pell-mell created is awesome.
Divinity in man is not an accident. It is there during life and after death. The concept of Supreme Soul and ramification of this Soul in all creations of the Universe is a universal truth. This truth has no religion. With simplicity of living, depending on the Nature, man lived as a child of the Nature. With technological developments, man lost his touch with the Nature, thereby separating himself with Divinity. Revelation of one’s true nature comes in one’s life with concentration of thought process, that is ‘Self Enquiry’ – ‘Who am I?’ He becomes a man of God then and there and for ever, with qualities of God himself. This is how tradition of adoring the Divine Spirits has come to stay. Connecting oneself with this Divine Supernatural beings is an expression of humanity, i.e. acceptance of divinity pervading in all human beings. This traditional worship becomes a culture of a society, as is evident in Tulunadu.

Notes:
1.‘Moolyada Pujari means an initiated man in charge of the images or masks (pāpe) of Spirit-Gods, armoury, ornaments and other things. He is entrusted with performing Pooja and maintaining the cleanliness of the Shrine (Daiva Sana) where periodical Kola ceremonies are held.
2. Readers may refer to older Posts No.32 (Origin of animal and spirit worship), 62 (Characterization of spirits of Tulunadu ), 94 (Antiquity of Siri) and 233 (Panjurli).
3. Thanks to Tulu Lexicon for documenting the words, phrases and idioms concerning this ritualistic art-form – Bhootaradhane.

20.08.2010                                                                                                                      -  H. Vishwanath

249. Origin of Sangam

Do you the  know the real origin and meaning of the word Sangam?

The word ‘sangam’ means confluence of rivers in Indian languages. By usage, it also means an association (of people). The Sangam literatures in ancient Tamil have been benchmark documents for Dravidian socio-linguistic studies. The Tamil Sangam literatures were compiled originally by a group of poet-sages like the Vedas.

We have suggested in the previous posts that the immortal Tulu Siri pāDdana were created in the similar fashion by unknown and unsung Tulu Sangam poets. The word Sangam, normally attributed   to  Sanskrit, is analysed as ‘sam+gam’ or get together.

However, the real origin or source of the word Sangam could be a bit strange! Let us explore!

Migration of tribes

Human evolution and heritage are so obscure and complex   that the origin, trail and trace of many of the common words   may have been totally forgotten or misunderstood. Scientists have documented that anatomically modern human being originated and evovled in Africa and with passage of time human tribes later migrated to different continents.Migrating tribes from Africa during ca 60,000 years ago appear to be the earliest tribes to settle in southern India. One of the branches of human tribes that settled in East Asian countries known as Austro- Asiatic tribes,  in another episode of migration, entered in India from the northeast and settled in different parts of India.

During the prolonged history of human evolution, human tribes settled in various continents developed and evolved independant languages, with the result we have several families of languages at present in the world. It is obvious that the earliest languages must have been simple sounds that evolved more or less independantly and developed grammatical complexities with passage of time.

Many question the basic and established tenets of human migration on the ground that the basic structure of languages in the place of origin and place of settlement are entirely different.It should be realized that many of these diverse sounding languages share common words that point towards common or shared origin of many of these languages.This could have been possible because the ancient words travelled to different continents along with migrating people rather than the languages and their grammatical structures.In some ways it also indirectly explains the resistance of the dominant native tribes vis-a vis invaders and immigrants.

We have explored in previous posts many of the African words surviving in our languages like Tulu as word fossils that document episodes of past history of human immigration. We shall explore some of the Austro-asiatic words that have been seamlessly absorbed in our languages.

Sangabettu to Sankala-kariya

Before we explore the possibe real origin of the common Indian word ‘Sangam’( the confluence of rivers), let us analyse some of the place names that are genetically related to this word such as Sangabettu, Sangolli, Sangli,Sankeshwar, Sankala-kariya etc. Infact there are numerous such village names all over India that carry the mysterious prefix ‘Sang’. (Sangner (Rajastan ), Sangariya (Rajastan),  Sangareddy (Andhra Pradesh), Sangameshwar (Maharastra), Sangamner (Maharastra), Sangrur(Punjab) .. etc)

Sangabettu (Bantval taluk, Dakshina Kannada) is a village on the bank of river Phalguni (Gurupur) and is located on the Bantval- Mudabidri connecting road. The ‘bettu’ suffix in Sanga+bettu explains that it is a ‘bettu’ a hilly or elavated terrain.Sang prefix in the Sangabettu reminds us of ancient Buddhist or literary ‘Sangh’s. But also keep in mind the common factor ‘Sang’ in Sangam and Sangabettu.

Sangolli is a village in Belagaum District, Karnataka whereas Sangli is a place in Maharastra. The similar sounding Sangolli (Sang+olli) and Sangli (Sang+ (o)lli> Sangli) appear to be two regional variants of the same toponym, wherein ‘Oli’ or ‘Olli’ means a village.
Sangameshwar (Ratnagiri Dist. Mah) is situated at the confluence of Sonavi and Shastri Rivers.
Sangrur in Sangrur District of Punjab, historically first inhabited by people from Sindh and Baluchistan, supposedly around 2300 BC. However, the present Sangrur City is said to have been founded by one Sanghu, a Jatt, about 400 years ago.

Sankala-kariya (Mangalore Taluk, Dakshina Kannada) is a hamlet on the bank of River Shambavi (Mulki) on Kateel-Murukaveri- Mundkur-Belman stretch of road.The suffix ‘kariya’ represents a ferry point, whereas the prefix ‘Sankala’ appears a bit strange since ‘sankala’ means a chain. However after a perspective analysis we feel that this word was originally ‘Sang-kala’ rather than sankala. The word ‘kala’ (pronounced kaLa) means a field or a plot (usually devoted to Spirit worship in the antiquity ) as we seen in numerous place names like Aikala, Bekala,Par(a)kala, Mabukala etc,

The common prefix among the word Sangam and the village names of Sangabettu (Bantval taluk), Sangkala-kariya Mangalore Taluk, Sangolli (Belgaum district) and Sangli (Maharastra) obviously is the word ‘Sang’! And the common natural factor among these words is these are all physiographically related to or proximal to Rivers.

Thus, it is clear that these village names share the (prefix) mysterious word ‘sang’.Besides , all these villages are located on the banks of rivers.

Song, the River!

The mystery ends when you find that the Vietnamese word ‘Song’ means a river*. The original Austro-asiatic word ‘Song‘ has been adapted in India as Sang! It can be recalled that ancient Austro-Asiatic tribes entered India from the North east in the antiquity and with time spread and settled in different parts of India.The Austro-Asiatic word ‘Song’ (=river) has been assimilated seamlessly as ‘sang’ into Indian languages during the historical antiquity.

Sangam

Therefore, it appears that the word Sangam before it was adapted into various Indian languages was originally ‘songam’ or sang+am, the confluence of rivers or simply ‘rivers’ to begin with.

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*Word Source: Keith Weller Taylor: “The Birth of Vietnam”. Google books.

248. Delantabettu

Many people based on an indistinct inference of available human genome haplotype studies believe that Dravidians were the aborigines in southern India. This inference also presumes that Dravidian languages existed and evolved in this terrain since the inception of human evolution. However, the existence of records for input of possible ‘foreign’ language elements in the antiquity may have to be considered in the current linguistic and genetic studies.
Delanta-bettu is a rural region near Surathkal and Surinje in Mangalore Taluk. You may be aware that ‘delanta’ (d in de pronounced mild as in English ‘the’) is a not common word in Tulu parlance! The Tulu suffix ‘bettu’ (like Kannada ‘betta’ or Gujarathi ‘bett’) means an elevated or hilly terrain.
There are other similar place names in other areas of Tulunadu like Delantabettu in Bantval Taluk, Delanta-majalu , near Manila, Bantval Taluk and Delantottu.
But what does the word ‘delanta’ means?
De, the body
The available indications suggest that the ancient root word ‘de’ originally meant ‘human body’ or ‘divine person’. It signifies that human body or persona was treated with utmost respect in the ancient days and the demised persons were worshipped in the form of Spirits. Later words ‘deha’ (=body) and ‘deva’ (=god) evolved with time from the original word ‘de’. It is interesting to note that the word ‘deva’ has other two meanings such as (1) body and (2) male genitalia (cf. Tulu Nighantu, p.1650), implying the origin and evolution of this particular word.This also signifies the transition of original Spirit cult to the worship of anthropo-morphic Gods with passage of time.
Thus the old Tulu word ‘dela’ suggests corpse or dead body.The word dela is found in the word ‘dela-gooDu’, which is a traditional decorated structure built at the site of a buried or cremated corpse. It can be understood that these structures (dela gooDu) were built as a symbol of reverence to the departed soul.These can be compared to the ancient cult of construction of elaborated pyramids to house the departed noble persons in Egypt and other countries. Similarly, Tulu words ‘deyyo’ (=Spirit) and later ‘daiva’ (=Spirit, God) evolved from the original ‘de’. In other languages like Kannada, where the cult of Spirit worship took a back seat with passage of time, this was modified to ‘devva’ (=Ghost or apparition).
With passage of time ‘dela’ also meant temple. Evolving Buddhist cults introduced early temples in India in the form of ‘Stoopa’ where mortal remains of Buddha were preserved and sanctified.Thus Buddhists Stoopa were continuation and improvement of the ancient delagoodu concept.Later Hindu temples evolved following the archetechtural styles invented and introduced by the Buddhists.Thus ‘dela’ became ‘degula’, ‘devala’ or ‘devaālaya’ (=temple).
After the word ‘dela’ was adapted to temples (ca. 4-6 Century CE), it appears that the word ‘delanta’ in Old Tulu was used to indicate aspects relating to divinity or worship and and area or zones reserved for priests.Thus ‘agrahara’ areas related to the temple were known as Delanta -majalu, Delanta-bettu, Delant-ottu etc.The 'Delanta bettu'  in Tulu  is almost equivalent of  'Devara dibba/gudda' in Kannada.
Delanta in Ethiopia
However, the analysis of the word ‘delanta’ as above is not so simple or conclusive. The roots of the core word ‘de’ suggested above, could have been a word originally invented by an early generation of human beings in Africa. Ethiopian region in Africa, where oldest dated human forms were discovered has been considered as the cradle of human species.
Secondly, the word ‘delanta’ as we find in ‘Delantabettu’, like the root word ‘de’, could have been imported to Karavali from Africa along with immigrants during one of the early cycle of human migration from Africa to India. And during the introduction of temple cult period, the pre-existing ancient imported word ‘delanta’ could have been redefined to reflect ‘devanta’ or divine sentiments as per the requirrements of ambient time period.
Delanta is a plateau region or place (name) in Ethiopia Africa known for occurrence of a mineral ‘opal’. There are many people around the globe with a name or surname of ‘Delanta’ or ‘Delante’.

Origin of some of the Tulu words and place names appear mysterious as we delve more deep.However, these mysteries reflect and conform to the overall scheme of human evolution and migration across the continents as accepted currently by the scientists.
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247. Mangalore place names

A mini dictionary of place names in and around Mangalore city is provided below alphabetically: Most of these PLACE NAMES have been covered  or explained in earlier R POSTS. Alternate possible explanations for the place names are given as (1), (2) etc.
Readers are requested to Check up the list and offer viewpoints wherever they disagree.

Adyapadi= An initial settelement of an unspecified ancient tribes.
Adyar= A field with tree groves. ADi= tree.
Alape, Alupe =A village on the bank of river. Alupe is the original home of Alupa Kings.
Alike= (1) An area on the bank of river (2) An administrative area. (3). A word modified from original ‘Aluve’?
Aluve= An estuary where river joins the Sea.
Attavara= Open area on the other bank of the river.
Baikampadi= A settelment of (1) ‘baikam’ (=beggars) wandering Buddhist monks. Or (2) ‘Baiy’, Baite or ’ Bey sub sect of Munda tribes.
Bajal= A dry area on the river bank.
Bajape=A habitation with dry land (poor water sources) characteristics.
Bijai = An ancient area reserved for Seed (beeja) storage?
Bokkapatna = A port named after Vijaynagar King Bokka.
Bolār= An open field of Bola, white immigrant tribes.
Bolur= A village of Bola, white immigrant tribes
BonDāntila= An habitation of Bond subsect of Munda tribes
Bondel = Originally Bandale, modified by Missionaries.’Bond’ or ‘Bandh’ was a sub sect of Munda tribes.
Derebail =(1) River valley of Dere sect, Dere a sub sect of Munda tribes (2) Devare bail= River valley of Dieties.
Dongarakeri= A colony of Donga subtribes.
Guliga bittil: A colony named after Guliga Spirit. ( This was the old name for the 'old bus stand' area located between Punja Arcade and Bavutagudde (Old light house).)
Gurupur= A village of Gurus (Lingayath preists). 17th CCE.
Hampankatte= A shade under a tree named after a legendary ‘Appanna’ who used to offer water to thiersty travelers.
Hosabettu= A new settlement on a ridge.
Iddya = A village of ‘Ideya’(Yadava) cowherd tribes.
Innoli = (1) A village on the bank of a rough river Netravati. (2) A village of Inna tribes?
Jeppina moger= A river bank where the Netravati river ‘lowered its level’ (ie shifted) during the history.
Kadri= Kadire= (1) A paddy corn distributed during annual agricultural festival. (2) An area legendary for distribution of rice corns.
Kankanadi= A village of Kanka tribes.
Kapikad= A reserved forest (Once upon a time!).
Kannur= (1) A villge of Kanna tribes, (2) An eye shaped island within the Netravati river.
Karangalpadi= A settlement of Karanga (Koranga> Koraga) tribes.
Kavur= A village with reserved, protected groves.(Once upon a time!).
Kinya = (1) An divine African word brought by immigrants, Kin+iya. (2) Small?
Kodikal = A standing pillar like rock on the edge of the village. (Now no longer not exist!)
Kodialbail= The original ‘Kudla’ word has been modified into ‘Kodiyal’.
Kolya= A settelement of Kol tribes.
Konāje= (1) A field (aje) on a corner (‘kona’).(2) A field of buffaloes.
Konchādi= A habitation of Koncha tribes.
Kottara= (1) An open field of Kota or Kotia tribes, or (2) A storage area.
Kudala = (1)An ancient agricultural village on a river bank. (The River has now dried up!). (2) A confluence of two rivers.
Kudroli= Kuduru+Oli. An village on river island. (The old estuary has now been dried up).
Kudumbi-bittil:A colony of Kudumbi tribes.( An area near Phalnir).
Kudupu = An ancient agricultural village.
Kulai= A village with a lake(kula).
Kulshekara= An area named after Alupa King Kulashekara.
Kulur = A village beside a lake (Kula).
Maikala= Mayikala. A town named after an ancient Buddhist temple devoted to Māyi or Mayadevi.
Māladi= A habitation (aDi) of Māle tribes
Mālemar = An agricultural field (mār) of Māle tribes.
Mangala=Later modification (6-9 CCE) of the word, Mangār.
Mangar= (1) An open field of Mang subtribes, or (2) ma+ang+ar= An elevated open field.
Manki= A n village of a) Mang subtribes Mang+ki , or (2) on an elevated area.
Mannagudde = A hill of reddish soils.
Manjanādi= (1) A settlement of Manja tribes (2) A settlement on a elevated land?
Marakada= A river ford beside village of Marava tribes.
Maravur= A village of Marava tribes.
Maroli= A village of Marava tribes.
Mudupu = A reserved village.
Mulur=An ancient village of aboriginal (Moola>. Moolya) tribes.
Naguri= A village named after Nāga (worship) or Nāga tribes.
Nantur= A habitation on a steep cliff.
Neermarga= A road by the side of a river. (The said river is now dried up!)
PachanāDi= A habitation of greenery.
Padavinangadi = An urban area (with shops) on the elevated plateau
Padavu = An elevated lateritic plateau or zone.
PaDavu= A sunken area, formerly occupied by streams.
Padil = An ancient deserted field.
Panambur =A village of Panaba tribes
Pandela= A sea port, a boat yard. Pandi=a large boat.
Pandeshwara =Later modification (6-8 CCE) of the word Pandela.
Parari= A large settlement. Possibly originally it was ‘PerāDi’.
Pavur= A village beside river (Pav=river /flow, a Toda word).  (2) A village named after ‘Pāv’ (=snake) or Nāgas?
Permanki= A large habitation of (a) Mang subtribes or (2) on an elevated area.
Phalnir= Pala Neer.Pāl +nir. Old river course.Area where an ancient river (now dried up) in braided form (or split up).
Saravu= A habitation beside a lake (=’Sara’).Now modified to ‘Sharavu’.
Shaktinagar= A colony named after Ramashakti Mission. (ca. 19th CCE)
Shedigudda = A hill of clays.
Surathkal = Rocks (on the beach ) washed by waves.(Originally ‘Toratt-kall’).
Tannirbāvi= A place named after a cool fresh water well on the beach.
Tiruvail= Originally Tiruvoil. An area where the river Gurupur took a sudden shift turn ( An historical incident of change of river course ) .
Tokkottu = A village/settlement (‘ottu’) on a river valley (‘toke’).Toke+ottu.
Tokur= A village on a valley. Toke+uru.
Uchila = A Village named after ‘Uchu’ (=Nāga).Uchu+ila. Ila=house,habitation,settlement.
Ulaibettu= An island with hilly area. [Probably original name ‘Uliya bettu’ has been modified into Ulaibettu. And the river has shifted its path during the course of history.]
Uliya= an island.
Ullal= Ulla +al= river inside the village. [Ula or Ola=interior or linside; ala=water;river. Now the former river inside Ullal town has been dried up.]
Urwa= Uru+va. A settlement of urban land.
Vamanjur= (1) A village named after Vāma or Oma tribes (2) A village of Vāma/ Oma crop?
Yekkur= A village of Yekka  .
Yeyyadi = An habitation of Yeya (>.Yeda, Yadava) cowherd tribes.
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246. Kudla : A controversy

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The word ‘Kudla’ is an ancient name and refers to the city of Mangalore.What is the meaning of this word Kudla? If you answer me that ‘Kudla’ means ‘kooDla’ or a confluence of two rivers, you may not be precisely reflecting the original meaning of this word!

Let us analyse this controversy.

A Confluence  of Rivers?

 Fluvial Geography of Mangalore city at present

Yes! Most of us, including this blogger, were under the impression that ‘kuDla’ means a confluence region of two rivers, Gurpur and Nethravati. You can also find this explanation in some of the earlier posts filed in this blog or write-ups published in periodicals.This opinion is also shared by the mighty Tulu Nighantu.

The Tulu Nighantu lists three meanings for the word Kudla (p.823):

1. Mangalore town, a confluence of two rivers.

2. Again. [The Tulu usage ‘kuDala kuDala’ means to repeat again and again.]

3. (a) a confluence of two rivers, (b) a   confluence of a stream and a river. [Latter, also known as ’KooTel’]

Thus the  cited entries 1 and 3 above suggest emphatically that kuDla means a confluence.

The assertion that KuDla= confluence is based on the word koodla as in place names ‘KooDala Sangama’ (of Basaveshwara fame, Bagalkot district) or ‘KooDali’ (a confluence of Tunga and Bhadra rivers, Bhadravati Taluk).

Paleo-geography of Mangalore:

In Mangalore we have a confluence of Gurupur and Nethravati rivers between Bengare and southwestern corner of Mangalore city.However,the confluence of Gurpur with Nethravati River occurred relatively recently ie in the year 1887.That is to say that confluence as seen now did not exist in the historical past! Thus ancient word ‘kudla’ may not be referring to any recent confluence!

Secondly, the word ‘Kudla’ even though applied at present to Mangalore as a whole in general, was originally referring to apart of present Mangalore, especially the Kodialbail area.Kudla was the Kudla bail to begin with which with passage of time changed into Kodial-bail or simply Kodial. This Kudla bail or Kodial bail is a valley region once upon a time occupied by Phalguni River which changed its course (probably around 7^th Century CE or earlier) further northwards in the course of time.

Thus the truth is that KuDla is not kooDla!

It was an fertile river plain in the antiquity that was amenable for good agricultural crops!

Let us explore the alternative explanation.

Agricultural settlement

Dr Gururaj Bhat (1963) in his work ‘Tulunadu’ passingly remarked that Kudla is not ‘kooDla’ or a confluence (p.29, 2009 edition). He pointed out that Kuduva tribes iniated agricultural practices in ancient Tulunadu.Kuduva tribes in different areas and times were also known as Kudi, Kudu, Kudubi, Kudumbi, Koda, Kunubi etc. The Munda word kuDa reffered to ‘good agricultural lands’ and those tribes associated with agriculture were known as KuDi or KuDubi.

Ku+ Da + ala. = An agricultural settlement on the river plains.

Ku=good, Da=land, earth. KuDa=good land, agricultural land. Ala= river plain or habitation on the river plain.

There are many villages in the Karavali having the prefix of KuDu.

KuDupu .(A village in eastern Mangalore on Nanthur -Vamanjur NH13 road).

KuDuma.  (Old name for Dharmastala, Belthangadi taluk).

KuDumbi hittil ( A residential area near Falnir, Mangalore).

KuDipäDi .( A village near Vamadapadavu, Bantval taluk)

Kudne, Maharastra

Kudle  beach, Gokarna, Uttar Kannada.

Note that in above place names suffixes –pu, Ne,-le etc are indicative of settlement or habitation areas.

According to Dr Padur Gururaja Bhat (ibid) ‘kuDu’ later transformed into ‘koDu’ as seen in place names KoDiala,KoDimbadi, KoDavur,KoDlaDi,KoDangala, KoDange etc.

KuDu

KuDu also represents horse gram which incidentally is the first agricultural food crop grown in southern India. Agriculture in southern Indian River plains was in vogue ca. 2000-2500 BC according to archeo-botanical studies. This takes the age of the place name Kudla to that period, ca 2000-2500BC. The word KuDäla is derived from ancient and pre-Dravidian Munda languages of southern India.

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245. Shibarur

In the northern part of Mangalore Taluk, to the east of Surathkal and to the south of Kinnigoli, we have this hamlet known as Shibarur. Shibarur (Shibar + ur) is well known for a Kodamanithaya spirit shrine which has been renovated recently in the form of temple. Shibarur is known as Tibaar in Tulu parlance. The Shibarur village is proximal to Delanthabettu hamlet which forms a part of Surinje village. The Kodamanithaya shrine of Shibarur is a popular piligrimage centre and was recently in the news on account of the religious festivities associated with the shrine.

Shibrikere
There is one more hamlet in Mangalore Taluk known as ‘Shibrikere’ (Shibari+kere) referring to a now dried up ‘kere’ (=pond) near Yedapadavu.
Similarly there is a village known as Shibaje in Belthangadi Taluk.
As you can see all these hamlets carry a lesser known prefix of Shiba, Shibara or Shibari. There may be many more such hamlets in other parts of Tulunadu or rest of India and these may be cited by our knowledgeable readers.Similarly,there is a locality with a large rocky outcrop known as 'Shibiri-kallu' in Maadathadka near Vitla Mudnur village, Bantval Taluk.
Let us explore and endeavor to document some of the lost strings of history and evolution connected with the habitation known as Shibarur and other 'Shiba",'Shibara' or 'Shibari' localities.
Shabara
Shibara is also the name of a mountain pass in Afghanistan where from many invaders and immigrants found their way to India in the historical past.The word Shibara also appears like a word related to ‘shibira’(= a field camp).
However, the word ‘Shibara’ could be an ancient variant of the word ‘Shabara’. Shabara signifies a tribe of hunters.Lord Shiva in the legends has been considered in the form of a Shabara or a tribal hunter. There is an estate valley known as ‘Sabarabail’ on the Bantval to Guruvayankere road. The place name Sabarbail documents the historical presence of Sabara hunter tribes in the Karavali.
Among older generation of Tulu people there is a proper name: 'Tabura' or 'Tabara' or 'Tabaranna'. This could not be the Tabur ant found on trees but a variant of the word Shabara or Shibura. Poornachandra Tejasvi wrote a novel known as 'Tabarana kathe', woven around an innocent rustic person called Tabara.
Shabari
Shabari is a well known character of an old woman, an epitome of devotion envisaged by poet Valmiki in the great epic Ramayana. The old woman from the hunter tribe was an ardent devotee of Rama. She collected various fruits from the forest and tasted each of the fruits before offering them to Rama. Mind you, she personally checked the taste and edibility of each of the fruit collected from the wild forest.Her innocent act was not to spoil the sanctity of the offering, but to verify personally if any of the wild fruits are poisonous or taste badly. Note that the poet Valmiki himself was from a tribe of hunters. The overall picture of the Shabari in Ramayana takes us back to the period of wild hunting stage in the human evolution.
Savara, Sora
The Sabara (or Shabara) tribe is also known as Savara (Orissa, Kerala, Karnataka), Severa (Assam), Sapera (Uttar Pradesh, Jamu, Maharstra), Soara or Sora (Andhra Pradesh, Orissa Bihar) tribes in other parts of India. These tribes have been considered as part of the Munda group of Austro-Asiatic tribes in India. One of the possibility is that Shibara (Karavali Karnataka), so far undocumented, was a variant of this large and wide spread tribal group of ancient hunters.
Kirata tribes
Apart from the Shabara-Sabara-Shibara-Savara- Severa-Sapera-Soara-Sora tribal hunters group, there were other hunter groups known as Kirata or Kirataka and Bhils.
Kirata (or Kiranta) tribes were the ancient inhabitants of foothills of Himalaya in northern and northeastern India and considered to be of Indo-Mongoloid or Indo-Tibetan origin. Kiranta tribes ruled ancient Tripura in northeastern India and claim that they were also part of the pre-Vedic Indus Valley civilization.The Kirata and related tribes like Yaksha and Kinnara were part of the ancient legends of India.
Shibarai - Shiva
It appears that Shibara or shibari could have been a word modified from Shibarai. Bengalis use the term Shiba for Lord Shiva.The Shibarai or Shibaroy means Lord Shiva.It is a northeast Indian equivalent of the south Indian usage of Shiva-roy. In Karavali and Kannada areas Lord Shiva was earlier also known as Shivaraya. There is Shevroy hills in Salem district of Tamilnadu.
It is well known that Lord Shiva is an anthropomorphic divinity in the form of a hunter, wearing a tiger/deer skin as loin cloth.Thus the origin of the Shiva cult clearly dates back to hunting stage of human civilization.
Lord Shiva has been variously described as Shabareswara or Kirateshwara etc implying the origin of the cult from hunting tribes.Originally the Shibarai (Shiba or Shiva) could have have been a leader of hunting tribes. Legends associated with him imply that he had ability to withstand poison (Vishakanta), tame serpents (Nagabharana) and wild life, knowledge of astronomy (crescent on head),ability to understand and utilize water resources(Ganga on the head). His exceptional qualities, talents and abilities made him a great leader who was worshipped subsequently by the communities. It is said in Puranas that Lord Shiva mastered the art of 'Yoga' first and then it is passed on to Lord Vishnu.
Kiranti people claim that Shibarai, the Shiva, hailed from their community.
The Indo- Aryan sages who composed Vedas (ca 1700-1000 BC) in northwestern India worshipped Indra Varuna Agni etc Gods who later attained the status of demigods in Indian Hindu culture.Subsequently these Indo-Aryans when migrated and settled in northern Indian Gangetic plains assimilated with pre-existing Indians and adopted their divinities and cults existing in the region. Thus Shiva and Vishnu ruled the religious spheres and Vedic Gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni etc were relegated to the staus of demigods.
Besides, Shibi is one of the male proper names used during the history. We hear legends of King Shibi.
Shibi Chakravarti
Shibi is a King in the line of Ikshwaku of Solar Dynasty (Surya Vamsha). He is the embodiment of kindness and generosity. He is kind and generous not only to his subjects but also to anybody who seeks his help when in need. His name spread far and wide as a man of benevolence and righteousness. Indra, the Lord of Heaven, and Agni, one of his Deputies, decided to test his dedication to duty (Dharma) and compassion by creating a predicament to Shibi. Indra took the form of an eagle, a bird of prey, and Agni as a dove, a prey. Being chased by the eagle, the dove took refuge in the lap of King Shibi while he was giving audience to his subjects. The dove begged for its protection. The request was readily granted. Thereupon, the eagle entered his Court, demanding him to give back its prey and raising the question of propriety of Shibi in sheltering the dove, which is a natural prey. The eagle threatened the King that he would be committing a sin by depriving its food when it was in the verge of dying by starvation. To come out of this intricate situation, i.e. clash of moral duty and promise, he decided to offer his own flesh to the eagle in equal weight of the dove. But the pan of the balance with dove would every time outweigh the pan of with King's flesh. Ultimately, Shibi offered his whole body whereupon the Gods Indra and Agni appeared in their real forms, restored his body and blessed him that his name would remain for ever as a King of Righteousness and unbounded Kindness. This story is told in Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and also in Jataka stories of Buddhism.

Shibara-Shibari
Overall analysis as above leads us to conclude that Shibara or Shibari in place names such as Shibarur and Shibrikere possibly represent a tribal sect of hunters that pervaded parts of ancient India including the Karavali. Shibarai (or Shivaray) the original form of Lord Shiva could have originally been a leader turned divinity hailing from Shibar or Shibari tribe of hunters. The term Shiba in Shibarur also hints at the cultural connection between the Karavali Karnataka and the Bengal/Assam region in the antiquity.
Besides, the word ‘shibira’ ( =camp) as used in Kannada may have been derived from the forest camps of Shibara tribes.
Readers may send in their inputs and opinions on these and related place names.
-Ravi and Vish.
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244. Eliya tribe

You might have encountered a village called Eliya Nadugodu (in Bantval Taluk) or a hill known as Elimale (in Sullia Taluk). If you are new to the field of analysis of place names you are likely to translate Eliya Nadugodu as ‘Small Mid ridge’ [because Eliya means small in Tulu] or Elimale as ‘Hill of Rats’ { because eli means rat in Tulu] !
Similarly, the place name ‘Elinje’ near Kinnigoli, Mangalore Taluk may have confusing interpretations as the prefix here might be representing either ‘El’(=seven) or ‘Eli’(=rat).
However, the words ‘Eliya’ or ‘Eli’ in the above place names represent name of a tribe which may or may not necessarily represent rats! The nature of these ethnic names are distinct when you take up a place name like ‘Eliyara padavu’ (= the plateau of Eliya people).
Eli, Eliya (or Hiliya), or Eliyar castes have been recorded in the census of southern states of India. The village name ‘Hiliyana’ near Goliangadi, Hebri in Udupi district has preserved another variant of this tribal name.
Similarly there is Hillur near Kumta in Uttar Kannada.
Apart from these, the prefix ‘Ela’ or ‘Ila’ could be another ancient variant name of these tribe. There are place names like ‘Ilantila’ (Ila+anta+ila=habitation of Ila people) in Belthangadi Taluk or ‘Ilavala’ (Ila+va+ala= habitation of Ila people), near Mysore city. There are other places elsewhere in like Elattur,Yelandur, Yellapura,... etc.
Ellamma
‘Ella’ tribe could be another variant of the Eliya group. Place names like ‘Ellur’ (Udupi Taluk), Yellapura (Uttara Kannada),‘Ellammana gudda’ (Savadatti, Belgaum) have preserved this vestiges of 'Ella' people. Proper names like Yellamma, Yellappa appear to have derived from the root ‘ella’. Ellamma or Yellamma (of Savadatti) could have been originally a tribal goddess that was absorbed into the fold of Hinduism subsequently.Ellamma also refers to Runuka Devi, a Princess married to Sage Jamadagni, and she is the mother of Parashurama.
‘Hela’ tribal caste has been recorded in Census from Rajastan, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.Helva, Helve or Hilava have been recorded in Pondicherry and Maharastra. In Maharastra surnames like Yelkar, Yelamar, Yewale, etc are found.
Similarly,’Iliga’ and ‘Eliga’ variants considered equivalent to ‘Ediga’ or ‘Idiga’ have been documented in the census records from Karnataka. Ezhava or Ezhyva of Kerala and Tamilandu 'Hilka' of Kashmir region and Hill Reddis of Maharastra, Karnatka, Hill Pulaya of Tamilnadu may be equivalents or variants of Eliya tribe.
Kowdoor Narayana Shetty reminds the presence of "Eliyaal" in Kowdoor village of Karkala taluk. Bunts with surname "maaDa" are originally either from "Eliyaal" or from BelaDi.
Similarly, there is one 'Haliyal' near Sirsi, Uttara Kannada district. Could Haliyal be a modified variant of possible original Elihal or Helihal?

These varying names could be the variants of the same ancient tribe that lived in different parts of southern India and Srilanka. The ‘Eliya’ word can also be seen frequently in Srilankan place names.

Mushaka: Rat people?
The word ‘Eli’ means rat (or mouse) in Tulu. The place name Elinje, near Kinnigoli in Mangalore Taluk. Apart from ‘Elimale’ in Sullia, Dakshina Kannada, there is a similar ‘Ezhimalai’ in Kerala. Also there is an equivalent meaning place called Cherakkal in Kerala which means 'Rat hill' in Malayalam and Tamil!
Added to this, the great Epic Mahabharat mentions the existence of ‘Mushaka’ kingdom in southern India which has been interpreted as apart of present Kerala State. The Sanskrit word ‘Mushaka’ means the rat. The ‘Mushaka’ apparently was the translation or Sanskritization of the word local Eli. Yet the Sanskrit word Mushaka in Mahabharat identifies the existence of a ruling class of people that can be considered as ‘rat people’.
Civilized
The royal tag to this tribe also hints at civilized features of the Eliya community and it is possible that the ‘eli’, the rat, could have been the totem of these tribes. Note that the tiny animal rat has been adopted as official vehicle for Lord Ganesha in our legends.Further researchers may look for totem insignia of these people. Implication of civilization is also hinted, in Srilankan place names where the word Eliya is applied to towns and cities.
Possible evolutionary trends
Some of the possibilities that have taken shape during the course of evolutionary trends can be outlined for the benefit of those who pursue further research on these lines:
Yadava community is a well known and dominant community in northern India since or even prior to Vedic times (ca.2000 BC and earlier). They were basically cowherds and shepards. Later they also have been soldiers and rulers in different parts of India. Legendary hero Lord Krishna has been considered to be the famous icon from Yadava (Jadhav) community.Variants or several earlier forms of the word ‘Yadava’ can be found in southern India.
Yadava: Yedea, Ediya, Yada, Eda, Yedi, Edi, Ida, Ideya, Yeya, Yagava,. . etc are found as variants in ethno-toponyms of Tulunadu and other parts of southern India.(Check for example, the place names like Yadapadavu,Yadamangala, Yedatore, Yediyur, Iddya, Idakki, Yeyyadi Yagavakote etc. discussed in older posts.)
Apparently ‘Ida’ (pron: ‘iDa’) word was taken into Sanskrit from pre-existing native word ‘Ida’ or ‘Eda’ to signify the left or the sinistral part.
One of the possibilities is that word ‘Eliya’ was another variant of the word ‘Ediya’. And the word Eliya could have been later modified to Eli or Ela. If rats were not the totem of these tribes then the ‘rat ‘ Eli tag might have been the nick name given by other tribes.
In Kerala and other parts of south India tribe ‘Ezhava’, ‘Erava’, ‘Eravlliar’, ‘Illava’, etc have been noted in the census records. Erva and Irava tribal signatures are found in the place names of Tulunadu also. Whether these are all spatio-temporal variants of Eliya is to be studied further.

Mahabharat
Many writers have speculated on existence of ‘Mooshika kingdom’ based on the reference given in the mighty Mahabharat. While the reference documents the existence of a dominant tribes who had a nick-name of ‘rats’ during the period of compilation of Mahabharat (ca 500 BC), the actual size of the qualifier ‘kingdom’ has to be taken with a pinch of salt, in the absence of verifiable historical data, since the great epic is well known for poetic licenses and exaggerations.

Ezhimalai
Confusion regarding the meaning of the word 'Eli' (or Ezhi in Malayalam)can be understood by the lack of unanimity and different meanings attributed to the name of this hill in Kerala. Ezhimalai has been translated by various authors as :1. Rat mountain, 2.Seven hills and 3. High hills.

Mountain Rat
Guerrilla fighters were commonly known as rats. Shivaji Maharaja, who founded the Maratha Kingdom, was nick-named as 'Mountain Rat' by Western Historians. He was skillful in ambushing and attacking Forts in Hill tops, under Mogul's sway.
Thus, it seems the original meaning of the word Eliya or Hiliya may not have been rat! The word Eliya/Hiliya could have been a non-Dravidian word probably from Apabramsha or similar pre-Dravidian tribal language.


Further detailed studies on these aspects and the genome studies on the tribes would be desirable. In the meanwhile readers may send in tidbits of connected data available at their disposal.

-Ravi and Vish.
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