413. Milestones in the evolution of Mulki region

The region around Mulki has been significant historically since ancient times. However we do not find the place Mulki in very old historical documents! The actual position of the Western coastline has eventually changed during the Holocene geological period due to gradual regression of the sea.

The oldest recognizable cultural core in the region at present happens to be the land of legendary Siri, surviving in Tulu folk-lores (Siri pāḍ’dana). It is  located to the East of Mulki town. The ancient home land of Siri, as documented in the folklores, consists essentially of villages and hamlets of Bola, Sacheri(pete), Kotrupadi and Kadandale.

It is difficult to conclude now whether Siri pāḍ’dana was based on an actual event or a fiction. However, the essential geographic data embodied in the pāḍ’dana, coupled with its indirect cross reference to the Satiyaputo in the emperor Ashoka’s Girnar rock edict,  makes it a historically momentous document.

The River Shambavi that flows by the North side of Mulki, is connected etymologically to Udyavara, in the North represented by the historically significant Shambu-kallu hillock.

In the modern times, Karnad Sadashiva Rao was a prominent freedom fighter from the West Coast who brought laurels to the place Karnad, a suburb of Mulki.  Recently there has been a good article on the historical aspects of Mulki in Kannada by Dr. Vamana S.S, entitled “  ನಮ್ಮೂರು ಮೂಲಿಕೆ (ಮೂಲ್ಕಿ)” published in the Mumbai monthly “Mogaveera” (September 2018).  At this juncture let us collate and review the available historical and geological data.

GEOGRAPHY: PRESENT AND PAST

Presently, we do not find Mulki port town right on the coast but slightly inland being guarded by two rivers namely Shambhavi and Pavanje that join and debouch their fluvial contents into the Arabian Sea near Sasihitlu.   Two barrier spits extend from the sandy coastal banks of R. Shambhavi (Mulki River) and R. Pavanje (Nandini), in opposite directions, parallel to the beach-line that terminate near the estuary of Sasihitlu. (Earlier in this blog a post (Post 305) was written on Mulki the emergent land.)

The  geomorphology of the West Coast has evolved with time. In the past the features were much different!

Before a few centuries, the rivers Shambhavi and Pavanje were joining the Arabian Sea independently like other coastal rivers at that time. Then, Shambhavi river had a direct access to the Sea and  the of old Mulki port was located close to the sea mouth or the estuary.  Further with passage of time, as the sea receded westward, the position of the old sea port of Bappanadu, Mulki, remained inland.

Current geography of the region around Mulki, with ancient Siri homeland located to the East (click to enlarge).

There are a few evidences preserved in the local place names corroborating   the geographic changes in the flow channels of the Shambhavi/Mulki River during the past history. A note on the place name ‘Olalanke’ is pertinent here:

Olalanke: The ancient place name Ola-lanke is an interesting geographic toponym, as it suggests (1) the presence of an island within the river Shambhavi. (Ola =inner, inside river; lanke=island) in the past and (2)  shifting of the old river course such that the old river island was transformed into a land area. In other words, the locality Olalanke originally represented a kuduru or an island within the river. Due to subsequent changes in river geomorphology such as migration of river flow path, it became part of the mainland, as it exists now.

(However, there are a few legendary anecdotes in the area attempting to connect the place name ‘Olalanke’ with the renowned “Lanke” of Ramayana.)

Westward emergence of coastal land concurrent with regression of sea

The sea coast has gradually receded during the past, revealing the land of Mulki around 2^nd to 3^rd century CE. In fact, similar   recession of the Arabian Sea occurred all along the West coast and consequently, the original sea front locations of the ancient ports became inland with regression of the Sea.   Thus presently we find the ancient ports of not only Mulki but also Basrur, Barkur, Udyavar  and Alape (Mangaluru East) in inland locations (For corroborative documentary evidences,  on spatio-temporal changes in Gurpur river, read our Post  98).

The regression of the West Coast was a gradual and continuous event and if travel backwards in the history,  we find that whole Mulki and the region East of it was under the Sea.

 In retrospection, if we go back further in time some 2500 years or more, we find that then the Sea coast existed somewhere near Sacheripete (Mundkuru) and Bola ! That is to reiterate that then all the land now to the West of Sacheripete/Bola were covered under the Sea.

In Siri pāḍ’dana, there is glaring absence of present coastal place names such as Mangaluru, Mulki, Malpe, Udupi and Kundapura etc. Since these land parts were recovered from the sea as a result of marine regression,  the absence of current coastal places in the folk lore corroborates  the event of marine retreat  of the Arabian Sea. The regression of the sea is also documented in the legend of creation and retrieval of land from the Sea, popularly attributed to legends of Parashurama.(Post. 102)

About 2500 years ago: Satiyaputo/Satyanapura

In fact the places, Sacheripete and Bola, were the places of center of action described as “Satyanapura” in Siri pāḍ’dana  which appears to date back to some 2000 years.

Ashoka’s rock edict: 
 The rock edict of Girnar, attributed to King Ashoka ( ca 304-232 BCE) mentioned “Satiyaputo” along with other (neighboring) ancient South Indian States like Chola, Pandya, and Keralaputo.  The rock edict declares that in these regions ( implying that even though not included in his kingdom),    King  Ashoka provided the people with or arranged for  necessary medicinal herbs, roots and edible fruits along with providing facility of drinking water wells as popular welfare measures. The region mentioned as Satiyaputo in the rock edict has been considered to represent the ancient Tulunadu by several historians. (Budhananda Shivalli, 1982).

Ancient land of Siri - East of Mulki

 A perspective analysis of the places associated with Siri pāḍ’dana (as shown in the map) suggests that “Sacheri (-pete)” happens to be the modern equivalent place cited as “Satiyaputo”.
It appears that the Satyanapura was on the sea coast some two millennia ago. In other words, during the period of Satyanapura and Siri pāḍ’dana, there was no Mulki and the relevant land was under the sea!
Some of the relevant inferences in this regard are enlisted here below:

1. In the folk lore of Siri we find the name of Satyanapura near Bola, as the home of legendary brave woman Siri, popularly known as Tulunada Siri.  The homeland of Siri and her father Birumalva was ‘Satyanapura’ in Bola village according to pāḍ’dana.

2. The Satyanapura described in Siri pāḍ’dana can be matched with the  Prakrit equivalent term of Satiyaputo cited in the King Ashoka's rock edict.  The reference to Satiyaputo in the rock edict suggests that the region was well known by the time of Ashoka.

3. Presently, there is no place specifically known as ‘Satyanapura’ or ‘Satiyaputo’  in the West coast of India. However, south of Bola village and West of Kadandale village (both villages mentioned clearly in Siri pāḍ’dana) there is a hamlet known as "Sacheripete". 
The alternate Prakrit/Pali word ‘sach’(=truth)  in Sacheri (sach+yeri= mound of truth) corresponds to “satya” (=truth)   and “satiya” (=truth)   of Siri pāḍ’dana and King Ashoka edict respectively. 
In fact, the ‘satya’ (or ‘satyolu’, plural) is the usual term used in Tulunadu since antiquity to refer to the eternal aspect of the divine spirits.
Thus the hamlet presently known as Sacheri-pete (now within Mundkur village) near Bola village holds key to the mystery of the elusive Satiyaputo.

4. In case the,  Satiyaputo in Ashoka's edict refers to the Satyanapura of Siri pāḍ’dana, then it takes the date of Siri pāḍ’dana to an older period in the time frame of 250-100 BCE.

5. Siri pāḍ’dana mentions only one God or divinity known as “Bermer”, which was the ancient form of worship  that existed in several parts of ancient India, rudiments of which still prevail in Tulunadu. (There is a reference to the dilapidated shrine of Bermer, on which, Birumalva ,Siri’s father,  focuses his attention to repair it.)

6. In Siri pāḍ’dana, we find reference to only those places lying  around and to the East of Bola-Sacheri-Kadandale. Basrur port in the North is mentioned (as Siri’s husbands place) but the current well known coastal towns such as Mangaluru, Mulki, Udupi, Udyavara, Kundapura etc are not found. Note that  Karla (Karkal) town located to the NE of Bola finds mention as a major town where one could buy wedding saris !

7. Based on the presence of abundant Prakrit derived words in Tulu and Kannada it has been   suggested that the Prakrit was the administrative language during early part of the common Era.(Shettar, 2014). Thus it is possible that the original version of the Siri epic could have been composed in Prakrit and later translated into Tulu pāḍ’dana (folklore) form.

8. The epic qualities of the Siri pāḍ’dana resemble Sangam literature of Tamil. Thus the folk lore appears to have been inspired from the Sangam literature and we may recognize it as a product of  “Tulu Sangam” literature that ran parallel to Tamil Sangam.

The glaring absence of present coastal place names such as Mangaluru, Mulki, Malpe, Udupi and Kundapura etc in the Siri pāḍ’dana further corroborates an major event of marine regression. It is also corroborated in the popular legend of creation of land retrieval of land from the Sea attributed to sage Parashurama is a real and natural geological event !

Early centuries of Common Era: Siri alaḍe

Many of the Tulu moolastānas that represent the original settlements (or ancient tribal settlements of primary order) of the immigrant Tulu tribes, have been attached or equated to alaḍes. 

Since most of the narrations in Siri pāḍ’dana are realistic social events, we may assume that the epic was based on a natural incident. Following the popularization of the Siri pāḍ’dana, a number of “Alaḍe” (ancient centers of worship) were developed around the Siri land centered on Bola village. (Alaḍe: āla = water ḍe =place; or, holy place beside water body). 

Usually these Siri Alaḍe are referred to as Adi Alaḍes suggesting their historical antiquity.  Thus Siri alaḍe were established in villages around Bola such as Kavatar, Nandalike, Hiriadka, Pangala, Kandevu (Chellair) and Nidigal (Kanyadi).

Two of these places - Nandalike (Karkal Taluk) and Kavatar (Mangaluru Taluk) are close to the original Siri homeland, where as Pangala ( near Udyavara,  Udupi Taluk) and Kandevu (Chellairu near Surathkal, Mangaluru Taluk) are proximal to the coast. Hiriadka must have been an ancient center of traditional worship in those times. Only Nidigal (Kanyadi village, near Dharmastala, Beltangadi Taluk) on the banks of River Netravati is a relatively far off place from the Siri homeland. Notably there are no popular Siri shrines in Kundapura/Basrur region which was Siris first husband's place according to the pāḍ’dana. (Please correct me if any reader has more information on this aspect).

Location of Siri Alades in Dakshina Kannada & Udupi districts, Karnataka (Click to enlarge)

The Siri alade are characterized by a different  pattern of worship compared to other Spirit worships. Besides impersonation of characters in Siri pāḍ’dana such as Siri and Kumara, the festive congregation also witnesses convulsions of mass effects of possession and or trance.

Birumalva:  
In the Siri pāḍ’dana the name of the Siri’s father is given as Birumalva. Note that the term “Biruma” represents alternate form of the word Berma or Bermer. The basic doubt historians may get is whether Birumalva was an Alupa chieftain or connected to the Alupa dynasty of rulers?  We have no corroboratory data on this as there are no mention of  places like Alupe or Mangaluru or any hints on Alupa rulers in the available texts of Siri pāḍ’dana. It could be that the suffix Aluva in Birumalva’s name  possibly refers merely to his status as a member of a past ruling family and may have been added by the pāḍ’dana reciters later on. It may or may not have any connection with the Alupa ruling families.

However, the setting of the Siri pāḍ’dana clearly evinces that Satyanapura as well as the shrine of Bermer gunḍa were in dilapidated form when the original narration of Siri pāḍ’dana was going on, and thus, indirectly suggesting that once upon a time  these were in good shape. 
This setting further prompts us to infer that there were past days of glory of Satyanapura (or Satiyaputo) before the Siri pāḍ’dana event. 
The earlier period of  glory probably prompted King Ashoka to include reference to Satiyaputo in his rock edict. 
It is possible that after the period of installation of the cited rock edicts (ca. 250 BCE), Satiyaputo/Satyanapura saw bad days and then the main events of Siri pāḍ’dana occurred. This inference would place the date of Siri pāḍ’dana  events somewhere between 250 BCE and 100 CE.

Alupa rule at Udyavara

Members of Alupa family (of chieftains) ruled major parts of Tulunadu and parts of Malenadu (Humcha, Banavasi) for some 1000 years,  probably between the years ca.400 and 1400 CE. However, established inscriptional evidence of their reign begins around 650 CE, when Aluvarasa I was associated with Kadambas at Banavasi (Gururaja Bhat, 1975). Banavasi is located in Uttara Kannada district.

 It has been considered that Alupas migrated from Alupe / Mangalapura to Udyavara early 7 th century. There are known inscriptions relating to Alupa rulers in Udyavara have been dated to ca. 730 CE and later up to about 10^th century CE.

So far there have been no inscriptions related to Alupas at Mulki or East of Mulki. However, a historical word clue on Shambu and Shambhavi possibly unites the area of Mulki with Udyavara.

Alupa period: Shambu and Shāmbhavi: 
River Mulki is traditionally known as Shāmbhavi, a name of the mother goddess, which is the feminine form of Shambhu. Note the suffix –avi (=mother) in the word Shāmbhavi. River Shambhavi originates near Alladakyār in Karkal Taluk. Two tributaries, namely Goldendi stream from Irvattur and Renjala stream from Renjala,  join to form the initial source of River Shāmbhavi.

The name Shambhu representing Lord Shiva, though relatively less common in usage we find it applied to  a dome shaped granite rock, hosting an ancient (8^th century CE temple dedicated to Shiva)  named as Shambhu-kallu in Udyavara, located about 20 km to the north of Mulki. This provides clues to infer that Mulki to Udyavara was a contiguous political-administrative unit during the early history of the terrain.

Bappanadu Durga Parameshwari Temple: 

Legends and lore abound in the region describe that one day during the undated early history  ship of a Muslim merchant by name Bappa was stranded near the Mulki port due to inclement weather. Locals advised him to pray to the Goddess of the region for relieving the stranded boat. Accordingly, after due prayers and physical help from the natives, the merchant Bappa was able to retrieve the stranded boat and its merchandise successfully. It is said that merchant Bappa arranged for the construction of a temple dedicated to the Goddess Durga Parameshwari near the port. In honor of the merchant Bappa, the locality was named as Bappanādu, which popular place-name is prevailing even today. Based on the history of other Durga temples in the West Coast, the original Durga temple of Bappanadu can be dated between 8^th and 10^th centuries CE.

The local people describe that the original Durga temple was near the old Mulki port before it was shifted to its current position on account of the dilapidation of the ancient structure.

Vestiges of Buddhism: 
Similarly, vestiges of evidences of Buddhism in the region, such as involvement of the members of  Thiyya/Belchada community in the traditional temple car festival celebrations even now, suggest that the temple was originally  an ancient shrine of Bhagavati worship  which was transformed into Durga temple under the profound influence of revivalist sage Shankaracharya (788-820 CE) probably during the early part of 9^th century CE. Before recent renovation of the Bappanadu temple, there were wheel symbols in the front stone facade of the old temple. Such symbolic wheel designs are commonly associated with Buddhism in the temple architecture.

Administrative structure: 
Dr Vaman (2018) begins with introductory notes on earlier pattern of administration vogue in ancient Tulunadu. Earlier, typically the States in Tulunadu were the principal   administrative divisions, with each State made of ten “māgaNe” (ಮಾಗಣೆ). Each “māgaNe” traditionally consisted of four to five contiguous villages. Each village had four   leaders known as “Gurikars” (ಗುರಿಕಾರ).

The village level administrative structure altered after the Jain chieftains took over. A Jain Ballāl or Heggaḍe was appointed as the administrative head of each māgane. Further, each village had two ‘bhāva’, one ‘bālike’ and a ‘parāri’. In this case, the old Mulki State consisted of nine māganes.

Samantha chieftains, 15-16^th century 

Rulers of Samantha dynastic family occupied Mulki town during  circa 16^th century. Before adopting Mulki they were residing and ruling from  Shimanthur village, located to the East of Mulki. The Kotekeri (koţe=fort; keri= residential zone) area in Eastern Mulki contains relics of the fort built by Samantha rulers of Mulki. Chandranatha basadi and Hanuman temple located in the area are also attributed to the Samantha rulers.

Samantha chieftains defended Mulki   from the Portuguese and the Keladi invaders within their means. Keladi  Venkatappa  Nayaka seized the fort from the Samantha chieftains. Later Haider Ali and Tippu Sultan have occupied the fort from Keladi Nayaks. Subsequently, the Samantha chieftains shifted their base to Panambur located to the South of Mulki.

Mulki Port: It is interesting to note that the old sea port of Mulki is situated about a km East of the coastline near Kadavina-bāgilu (“ferry gate”) and Mānampadi, on the southern bank of River Shāmbhavi. The old Mulki port, built around the year 1705 CE, was used in the past for international marine trade involving Arabs, Dutch and Portuguese merchants. However, the old Mulki port existed several centuries before the arrival of Portuguese, and then the port was at the earlier estuary of River Shambhavi.

During the post-Vijayanagar phase, early 18^th Century CE, the Portuguese collected tax on the merchandise in the port under permission from the Keladi rulers of the period. During the period larger ships could not enter the Mulki port on the banks of Shāmbhavi, hence the ships used to anchor in the Arabian Sea west of Mulki and the merchandise was transported inland to the port by boats with the help of native Mogaveera workers.

The Portuguese by virtue of constructing the port dock, in early 18th century CE, collected taxes on the merchandise, with permission from the Keladi rulers of the time. Though the available record mentions the construction of the Mulki port on 1705, other circumstantial evidences suggest that the port existed there before the Keladi /Portuguese period. 

ORIGIN OF THE PLACE NAME :  MULKI

Herbs.. or new land ? : 
 Dr. Vaman, suggests that the place name “Mulki” was derived from: “moolike” (=herb); it was also known as “moolikapura” which on translation means the town of herbs. People believe that the Moolikapura later became Moolike and further later on Mulki. Several other earlier authors have also expressed similar interpretation on the origin of this place name.

Emergent land: 
However, we can trace the real origin of the place name to a Prakrit /Munda word “mulk “ (or > “mulki”), which simply means the land or more specifically connotes to the new land emerged from the Sea, possibly during the early centuries of the common era.

Prakrit/Munda was the administrative language of this coastal land during the early centuries of Common Era (CE) (see also Shettar, 2014) , as is explicitly evident in the presence of numerous place names of Prakrit/Munda origin in Tulunadu (as also in other parts of India). Thus, the place name Mulki can be traced to the beginning centuries of the CE when the new land emerged by the regression of the Arabian Sea.

Mulki= land;   derived from “mulk”,  a Prakrit/ Munḍa word.

Indirectly, the place name Mulki suggests that Prakrit/Munda were the common administrative languages in the region when the land of Mulki was emerged from the Arabian  Sea in the early centuries of CE.
 Incidentally, the Tulu word muluku (muruku; murunku) (=to sink or submerge) also sounds close to the Prakrit word mulk, as suggested by Hosabettu Vishwanath.

Prakrit/ Munda words in Tulu, Tulunadu

There are a plethora of ancient words in Tulu language as well as in place names Tulunadu. Several years ago we pointed out strange sounding place name words in Tulunadu, whose meanings are either not known or wrongly interpreted because of confusion! With further analysis and interpretations we found most of these strange words in Tulu are of Prakrit / Munḍa origin.

Note that even today we commonly use the Prakrit word “barsa” (ಬರ್ಸ) for rain; we have almost forgotten the original Dravida/Tulu word for rain: “mare” (ಮರೆ) - incidentally, which later became “male” (ಮಳೆ ) in Kannada.  Also note that the Dravida/Tulu word ‘mare’ (ಮರೆ) still survives in the Tulu word ‘mariyala’ (ಮರಿಯಾಲ) for the rainy season!

Saraswath settlers

During the ruling period of Samantha Dugganna, (17^th Century CE) witnessed the exodus of many members of Saraswaths and Gowda Saraswaths communities from Goa towards South, owing to persecution of  Hindus by Portuguese occupants of Goa. Many of the immigrants settled in and around Mulki and Karnad. The installation of Ishvara temple at Kotekeri and Venkataramana temple at Olalanke are attributed to the Saraswath and Gowda Saraswath settlers in Mulki.

REFERENCES

Budhananda Shivalli (1982). “Tulu Patero”. (in Tulu language).  Mandira Prakashana, Mangaluru-575001, 2004, p.317.

Gururaja Bhat, P.( 19 75 ) Studies in Tuluva culture and history. P. Reprint 2014. Padur Gurauraja Bhat memorial trust, Udupi-576101.p.452+plates 448+xxxvii

Shettar,S (2014) Halegannda: Lipi, lipikara, lipi vyvasaya, p.528. Abhinava, Bengaluru.

Vamana, S.S, Dr.(2018) “Nammuru Moolike(Mulki). ”ನಮ್ಮೂರು ಮೂಲಿಕೆ (ಮೂಲ್ಕಿ)” (In Kannada), Mogaveera, Kannada monthly, Andheri (East), Mumbai, September 2018, vol 79, no.3, pp.44-47.

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305. Mulki: An Emerged Land

Mulki is an unassuming small coastal town located midway on the National Highway 66 (formerly NH17) that connects the port city of Mangalore with the temple town of Udupi along the West Coast. It is located on the southern bank of the West flowing River Shāmbavi. The name for the town of Mulki was said to have been given by the Kanakadasa (ca.1508-1606 CE), a renowned proponent of Bhakti cult in Karnataka. Kanakadasa introduced the place name Mulki in the 16^th Century CE for a place earlier known as Volalanke. Mulki was ruled by Samantha chieftains, whose inheritors still remain in the present day as landlords in the area.

The Shambavi and Pavanje Rivers and theVillages around Mulki Town.

Somewhere in the period of 7^th or8th Century CE, a Muslim merchant from the Beary community, faced an acute problem   as his merchant boat laden with rich goods was struck at the Port of Volalanke. Someone from the locality advised him to pray to Goddess of the area Bhagavathi/Durga and build a temple in her honour. Merchant Bappa prayed to the Goddess and that he would build  a temple in her honour if his boat was  salvaged from the rough weather.

The edicts of King  Ashoka,  ca 3^rd Century BC, refer to Satiyaputo   which can be correlated with legendary Satyanapura documented in the Siri PaDdana. The Eastern part of Mulki is the fabled domain of legendary lady Siri  comprising the present villages of Mundkur, Bola, Kadandale and Kallamundkur. Further,the legend of Parashuram essentially envisages a major event of retreat of the Sea and emergence of land in the west Coast of India (known generally as ‘regression of the sea’ in geological parlance). Combining these anecdotes we may infer that Siri legend predates the legend of Parashurama.

Recent geological studies coupled with analysis of the available scanty historical data by this Tulu research team reveal that Mulki is part of the coastal strip of land that emerged from the Arabian Sea approximately during the beginning of the Common Era. However, the natural process of emergence of land from the Sea has been metaphorically attributed in the prevalent coastal legends of the West Coast of India to the miraculous feat accomplished by mythical Lord Parashurama. Similarly the flow path or position of River Shambavi has altered and indications suggest that the river has migrated laterally towards North in the recent history of the Coast. We shall discuss some of these interesting historical aspects in the light of our recent studies in this post.

Volalanke- Mulki

Writer Narayana A. Bangera in his Kannada serial Hari bhakti sāra being published in Mogaveera periodical of Mumbai, states that Kanakadasa who visited this coastal area while he was travelling around the temple town of Udupi, sometime in the 16^th Century CE, renamed the place originally known as Volalanke as Mulki. The name Mulki has been Sanskritised in some references as Mulikapura.
The term Mulki possibly refers either to (1) the herb (moolike) or to (2) the land (derived from Urdu word Mulk).

The Volalanke (or simply Olalanke) still remains as the name of a hamlet within Mulki located about 2.5 km East of the Coastline. The area near the Venkataramana Temple in the Eastern part of Mulki is still known as Volalanke. The term Vola-lanke means an inner island or in other words an island within a river. The coastal rivers of Karavali invariably consist of numerous small islands generally known as kuduru in Mangalore Udupi area (or kurve  in Uttar Kannada).

Thus Volalanke represents an ancient kuduru or river island within the former course of the River Shambavi. The area west of Venkataramana  Temple extending up to  Mulki Bus stand, consisting of an elevated land area that was formerly an island (or kuduru) within the erstwhile course of River Shambavi. The River Shāmbavi has changed its flow path and migrated northwards during the course of evolutionary history   leaving the ancient kuduru of Volalanke as part of the landmass.

Bappanad

One of the major landmarks of Mulki town is the Durga Parameshwari temple which is also popularly known as the Bappanād Temple. The original temple of Bappanad was said to have been constructed under the direction of a Muslim Beary merchant called Bappa Beary, sometime during 7^th or 8^th Century CE. Anecdotes prevailing in the society describe that a merchant ship owned by Bappa was stranded in the Sea and could not be brought to safe anchorage   at the ancient port of Mulki. When he pleaded help of the locals in bringing his ship to safety, someone suggested him to pray to the native presiding diety of the region Bhagavati Durga Parameshwari. Accordingly merchant Bappa vowed to build a temple for the diety if his ship loaded with merchandise was rescued. Legends state that Bappa succeeded in retrieving his ship from the troubled waters and later he accomplished his oath by building a Temple for the Bhagavati Durga Parameshwari near the Bundar area of Volalanke. The area around the temple was known as  Bappanad and the temple was famous as Bappanad.

Location of ancient coastline of Mulki region  with Bundar (Port) during the period of Bappa Beary.(Purple line shows the deduced ancient coastline ca 6th Century CE and the yellow beach strip indicates the current coastline.Volalanke means an island within river or a 'kuduru'. Note the presence of islands or  'kuduru's in the current River Shambavi.)

 The local people report that the ancient Bappanad Temple was originally located near the Old Bundar in Mulki and was shifted to its present location West of National Highway some 400 or 500 years ago.

Old Bappanad Bundar

Ports are invariably located on the mouths of the estuaries or closer to the beaches so as to facilitate convenient marine navigation for merchant ships. However, as pointed out in older posts herein, many of the Karavali Ports are located on river banks, a few kilometers inland from the Sea.

In Mulki we have an area called Bundar located on the southern bank of River Shambavi and about 2 km East of the present coastline. The term Bundar (=Port) is of Arabic origin and appears to have been introduced in the West coast after the Arabs entered into trade in the ports of Karavali.

Migration of Shambavi

The Volalanke area was an island within River Shambavi when it was flowing further south around Volalanke several centuries earlier. It means in other words that River Shambavi has shifted laterally northwards during the recent history. This observation is also confirmed in the case of other Rivers of the Karavali like Phalguni, Netravati etc.

The lateral migration of rivers is an event of relatively lesser importance from the point of history compared to the miraculous, sequential emergence of coastal land by gradual retreat of the Sea. The aspect of miracle in the natural event made people to attribute the event to the mythical powers of the legendary Parashurama.

Parashuram legend

Legends of a mythical hero known as Parashuram acquiring surplus land from the Lord of Sea are rampantly widespread in the West Coast of India. While old fashioned believers piously consider the story of Lord Parashuram quite seriously, atheists with scientific bend of mind scientists spurn the legends. However, the compiled geological data coordinated with available historical data reveal that retreat of the Arabian Sea and emergence of extra land in the West Coast of India was a real geological event that occurred sometime during or before the inception of the Common Era.

Domain of the Legendary Lady Siri

The oral genre of folklore of Tulunadu known as ‘Siri PāDdana’  (D pronounced as in Dog, d as in ‘the’) describe the anecdotes of a brave lady called Siri. Folklore experts tend to believe that the Siri PaDdana was initially composed around 10^th Century CE or later. However, we have suggested in older posts that the folklore was originally composed in an older period probably contemporaneous with the renowned Sangam Period of Tamilnadu. Probably, similar to Sangam in Tamilnadu there was a Tulu Sangam period in Tulunadu. Since its early composition, the original folklore might have been revised several times over during the course of subsequent history.

However, one of the curious observation of historical significance is that the Siri anecdote occurs mainly in the present villages of Bola, Mundkur, (Saccheripete) Kallamundkur and Kadandale. These villages can be considered as the central area or domain of Siri folklore. Probably the earliest form of Siri PaDdana was originally composed in this region. In the PaDdana, We also hear about Karkala town market, parts of  Nandalike, Kalya, Pilar etc that are located North and North-East of the principal Siri domain. We can also judge that Basarur, the town to which the Siri was married off to  Kantha Alva, was another important principality and Port town of the time (ca. 4^th-3^rd Century BC).

But the key point to be highlighted is that the folk document totally lacks any reference to the important coastal towns of today. Note that none of the present coastal towns of Karavali like Kundapur, Udupi, Mulki or even Mangalore find mentioned in the Siri folk document. Indirectly it may point out to the fact that none of these present coastal towns actually existed during the original composition of the Siri fable. And this could only happen because these coastal towns were under the Sea and hence, did not exist during the Siri times! Indirectly this data points to the fact that the Siri domain (Mundkur, Bola, Kadandale and Kallamundkur) was the located on the ancient   coastline during  the Siri period! Thus the circumstantial evidences reveal that the Siri legend in original form predates the legend of Parashurama.

(Fig 305-2).
The Arabian Sea receded after the composition of the Siri PaDdana. The process of regression could have begun before the  original composition of Siri legend period. And it continued slowly and progressively westwards thereafter as evidenced by the  position of Barkur and Mulki Ports.
(For comparative discussion on regression of the sea in the West Coast also read articles on Basrur and Alupe in the Older Posts herein.)

Retreat of sea

Retreat of the Arabian Sea and consequent emergence of coastal strip of land is a fact supported by geological and historical data. Overall data reveals that the ancient coastline of Arabian Sea was near Mundkur-Bola-Kadandale  before and during the period of King Ashoka, corresponding with the time slot of ca 4^th to 3^rd Century BC.

Further the Bappanad legend reveals that the inland area even now known as ‘Bundar’  was the actual estuary and Port during the period of Bappa Beary, estimated roughly as ca. 6^th to 7^th Century CE.

From the overall analysis of the data it can be concluded that the regression of the Arabian Sea has taken place continuously during the last 2500 years. Possibly it has continued even after the composition of the legend attributed to Lord Parashurama.

An Emerged land

Thus the region Mulki that emerged from the sea during the last two millennia reminds us the pages of bygone colorful history admixed with seemingly unexplained mysteries of regression of the Arabian Sea that have been converted by our ancestors with rich poetic imagination into everlasting legends attributed to mythical Super-humans like Parashurama.

-Hosabettu Vishwanath & Ravi Mundkur

296. Ancient port of Basarur

The ancient port town of Basarur (or Basaruru, Basrur, Basroor), is one of the oldest known ports  in the Karavali (West Coast) Karnataka that played far reaching cultural, commercial and religious roles in the historical perspective. Portuguese merchants had preferred this port during 17^th Century for importing initially rice and later pepper to Europe.

Basarur

Basarur is a village presently located about 4 km east of the   coastal town of Kundapur in the district of Udupi. It is located on the southern bank of River Varahi. The present Basarur town about four square kilometers in extent boasts of heritage of of some 7 colonies (‘kEri’), 7 water ponds (‘kere’), 27 temples, 40 spirit shrines, 4 garodis, 2 agraharas,2 mutts, 2 mosques and 2 churches, besides ruins of ancient fort walls enclosing remnants of a former twin city structure.

Location map of Basarur, Kundapura Taluk, Udupi district,Karnataka.

The seven colonies are named as follows: Mandi keri (=market colony), Vilasa keri (=pleasure colony), Basadi keri (=Jain colony), Raut keri (= horse riders colony), Gudigar keri (=artists’ colony), Mel keri(=upper colony) or Saler keri(= weavers colony) and Mudu keri (=Eastern colony). The names of colonies are suggestive of evolved city with emphasis on commerce (Mandi), defence (Rauts), culture(Gudigar), fashion(Saler) and pleasure(Vilasa) in the ancient port town.

Basarur Magane traditionally consisted of adjacent villages of Anagalli, Hatti-kuduru, Balkur, Japti and Kandavara. Hattiangadi village is located on the northern bank of Varahi River and to the north of Basarur town.

Basarur: colorful history

The ancient port town of Basarur is generally considered to have been named after king ‘Vasu’ who is thought to have ruled the region in the remote antiquity. However available historical records do not throw light on the legendary king Vasu who is also considered to have constructed Kotilingeshwara temple at Koteshwara in the neighborhood of Basarur. Others consider that the town was named after ‘Basuri’ (Ficus virens), a kind of tree related to the family of banyan tree. The place name Basarur has been mentioned as ‘Vasupura’ in ‘Keladi Nripa Vijaya’ (compiled in Kannada during Nayak rule, 18^th Century CE). Dr Gururaja Bhat considered that the name Vasupura has not been cited in older documents and it is a Sanskritized version of the name of the Basarur.

Village map of Basarur showing relics of old fort along with island of Hatti kuduru within River Varahi

It is possible that the name Basurur came from the name of immigrant Basu tribes. The Basu (Bashu or Bose) people were a Kayastha clan of Kshatriyas (warrior class) from Kannauj area of Uttar Pradesh who migrated to various regions. The surname Basu is widespread now in Bengal region. It is possible that the place name Basarur was derived after the ‘Basar(u)’ (the Basa or Basu people; suffix’ –ar(u)’ is a  Kannada/Tulu honorific signifying people) migrant tribes settled in the area under study.In Tulu Siri folklore(paDdana), Basarur has been recorded as 'Basalur', suggesting that it was  based on Basa-lu tribes,as in Tulu 'lu' suffix is indicative of plurals.
 In fact, the common male proper name ‘Basava’ could have originated from the ancient ‘Basa’ or ‘Basava’ people. The proper name Basu can also be found in Africa where it means brilliant. A renowned poet ‘Bhasa’ was living in medieval period in northern India.

Historical data suggests that Konkan coast was ruled by Bhargavas during early centuries of the Common Era. The Bhargavas with iron axes were generally credited with the conversion of forest lands into organized villages by cutting the densely grown trees. The legendary Parasurama (also known as Bhargava) could have been one those early heroes who actively propagated the process of converting forests into open fields suitable for inhabitation and cultivation.

The port town was under the rule of Kadambas based at Banavasi, after 4^th century CE. The Kadambas were also merchants to begin with and were considered as sea pirates in some reports. It appears that the river flowing by the town of Basarur was named  Varahi, after the female form of Panjurli Spirit, now also known as ’Varte’(derived from <.’Varahiti’) during the Kadamba rule. Ancient Legends concerning the power of Panjurli are dominant in this region. Legends of Parasurama were also codified into Puranas under the Kadambas who were instrumental in reactivation of Hinduism.

Apart from the Basu settlers from the North suggested in the place name, there are evidences of visits of people to Basarur from northern India like monks of Natha cult (also known as Jogis) from Nepal and Bengal.  Signature of Kol tribes in a pond (‘kere’) named after them as ‘Kolkere’ in Basarur. Similarly, Uppara , BattaDa and other tribes resided in Basarur.

The administration and affairs of the port of Basarur was apparently controlled by Nakhara and Hanjuman merchant guilds. The Halas and Settis domicile in the town were also influential in the administration. Disputes and legal matters were resolved in the presence of these power groups as suggested in some inscriptions.

The Alupas originally from Mangalore ruled this area at Hattiangadi with capital at Barkur between 8^th and 11^th century CE. The Alupa Kings were also sea-faring merchants by tradition. It was followed by representatives of Vijayanagara rulers who encouraged revival of Hinduism under Natha monks. Telugara hitlu (colony) in Basarur for example documents the existence of Telugu speaking settlers possibly during Vijayanagara realm. Further, after the fall of Vijayanagara, Keladi Nayak Kings [1554-1641CE] controlled the administration of Basarur. Characteristically, the Shiva/ Mahadeva/Ishwara temples were renamed as ‘Mahalingeshwara’ Temples under the Veerashaiva Kings of Keladi.

Portuguese [1510-1646] and Dutch [1662-1748] merchants had sway over the commerce of this port. Maratha King Shivaji attacked Basarur in the year 1665 (February 8^th] to strangle the foods supply chain to the Portuguese who had occupied Goa. By the time of Hyder Ali the port of Basarur lost its eminence as it turned to be an interior port, silted up with poor navigation facilities.  It is said that Hyder Ali unsuccessfully tried to repair and update the port with the help of Dutch technicians. Influence of Tippu Sultan [1784-1799] over Basarur has also been recorded.

The ‘Gudigars’, artisan experts in Temple arts (‘guDi’) and art of icon making, were considered to have been migrated here from northern parts of India. The presence of Icons of five Chinese women as spirits in an ancient Garadi of Basarur suggests cultural connections between Basarur and China in the antiquity.

Ancient Temples

The Basarur area shows evidences of several religious cults during the evolutionary course of history. It is inferred that Alupa kings initially followed ‘Pashupata’ cult, as suggested in Halmidi inscription. However during their initial reign, Jainism and Buddhism were dominant. Subsequently Bhagavati and Natha cults dominated. The Bhagavati cult culminated into Mother Goddess, Shakti (or Durga) cult, whereas the Natha cult revived Shaivism. Stamps of Janardhana as well as ’Shankara-Narayana’ (‘Harihara’ or fusion of Shiva and Vishnu concepts) cults can be seen in parts of Kundapur Taluk, where one of the villages is named after Shankaranarayana.

One of the temples in ruins at Basarur is known as Tuluveshwara Temple, which is considered to be ( PS Narasimha Murthy,1997) is older than 1400 CE. However, the original Tuluveshwara temple could be as old as 5^th to 6 Century CE. The Tuluveshwara tag is quite interesting and suggestive of prevalence of Tuluva tribes in this region in the antiquity. It is possible that this region ruled also by Alupa Kings from Mangalore was earlier inhabited by Tulu speaking people, till the advent of Vijayanagara rulers who apparently encouraged Kannada in Barkur State.

Adinatheshwara Temple in Murukeri colony has been dated to 11^th Century CE. Basarur region inclusive of Hattiangadi was under the sovereignty of Barkur State, ruled at that time period by Alupas (up to the end of 12^th Century CE). Adinatha being the earliest Guru of Natha cult popularized by Macchendra Nath and Gorakanath represents transition from Buddhism to Natha cult in the region. Macchendra Nath and Goarkanath duo from Bengal and Nepal are also credited with the establishment of the Kadri Manjunatha Temple at Kadri, Mangalore.

Legends suggest that sometime during 13^th or 14^th Century CE, a Linga icon from the pond of Kadri Manjunatha temple was carried to Kuduma in Belthangadi Taluk by Annappa (who is since then revered as Spirit Annappa Panjurli) and the new temple there was renamed as ‘Dharmastala’. Similarly, during the period a new temple was consecrated at Basarur and the locality was named ‘Dharmapatna’. Somehow the latter temple did not achieve fame comparable to that of Dharmastala, but the local legends consider that it was due to skipping the exact auspicious ‘muhurta’ (initiation) time, the temple failed to reach the pinnacle of glory. Thus  in records Basarur is also known as ‘Dharmapatna’.

Another famous temple in this town is Nakareshwara Temple dedicated to Mahadeva (Shiva) which contains inscriptions of the period of Alupa King Kavi Alupendra dating back to 1154 and 1176 CE. There is a Mahisha Mardini icon in the temple, considered to be of 9th to 10th Century CE by PS Narasimha Murthy. The name Nakareshwara suggests that it was built by the Nakara (=merchant) community of Basarur.

Hanjuman referred to the association of Moslem traders of Arabic origin who entered West Coast from Kerala during 6^th Century CE and were present in many of the Karavali Ports in the successive period. Thus, some of the oldest Mosques could be dated back to 8^th and 9^th Century CE in the Karavali Port towns.

The Keladi Nayak Kings were followers of Veera Shaiva cult who patronized the temples during 16^th and 17th Centuries, changed the name of Nakareshwara temple to Mahalingeshwara Temple.

Under the Portuguese rule of Goa, Gowda Saraswats fled Goa, migrated south and settled in Karavali places like Basarur. They built Tirumala Venkateshwara, Santeri Kamakshi, Mahalsa Narayani etc Temples in Basarur. Similarly immigrant Chitpavan Brahmins established temples dedicated to Ramachandra.

With Goa falling under the rule of Portuguese ca 1571, Christianity was propagated and Roman Catholic Churches were built in Basarur as early as 1574. It is said that in the year 1783, Tippu Sultan who was under the impression that Christians would support the British destroyed several churches in Basarur.

Hattiangadi

The Hattiangadi (Pron: haTTianagdi) village is located to the north of Basarur on the opposite bank of Varahi. The Hatti (pron: haTTI; =cottage, shed)  is ancient place name suggesting antiquity of the settlement. An ‘angaDi’ refer to an open field, mostly bazaar or ‘sante’ type rural market, where commodities were sold on daily or weekly basis. The word ‘angaDi’(=open field,> bazaar,> shop) has evolved with time and presently it means a shop. Therefore it can be presumed that the original ‘Hatti’ village was renamed as ‘Hattiangadi’ after the rural bazaars were used to be held there. The ‘Hatti’ name has also been given to an island (‘kuduru’) on River Varahi, located close to Hatti-angadi. It appears that the ‘kuduru’ was part of main land, attached to Hatti village till about 1450 and subsequently separated from the Hatti mainland due to drastic changes in river channel morphology, as interpreted from geological data and from Alupa inscriptions.

Hattianagdi village, formerly ruled by Alupa Kings, has an ancient temple dedicated to Lokanatha. The Natha suffix indicates that the temple dates back to the period of dominance of Natha cult that flourished under Alupa and Vijayanagar regimes. The ‘Lokanadu’ referred to in Siri paDdana appears to a place around Lokanatha Temple in Hattiangadi. The attributed place name ‘Lokanadu’ also signifies the traces of cult of Buddhism (Lokeshwara, Avalokiteshwara forms of Buddha). (cf: Kadire).

Basarur and Barkur

It has been pointed out that the town plans of Basarur and Barkur are similar in style suggesting their inter-relationship during the evolutionary history. Basarur was called Hosa-pattana (=New town) because it was rebuilt during 12^th Century CE. The position of the Port suggests that it was originally developed much earlier (probably 1000 BC or so) when the   original Basarur was located on the coastline.

 However, it seems based on geomorphic analysis that Barkur was a later developed port town than Basarur.   The old port of Barkur could have been converted into a capital (ca 10 Century CE?) after receding of the Western Sea coast and Kalianpur was the Port.

Siri paddana

Oral Songs of Siri (Siri paDdana) composed in Tulu language describe the ordeals of a brave legendary woman called ’ Siri’ and her fight for justice. The Siri paDdana has been considered as the Tulu Sangam orature (oral literature) contemporary to the traditions of Tamil Sangam. It is interesting that Basarur forms a major landmark in the story of Siri.

 The Siri was a charming, golden colored daughter of Berma Alva of ‘Satyanapura’ or ‘Satyandara’ mansion, in Majalottu, Bola village (Karkal Taluk). Berma Alva married Sommakka Devi of Basarur. After her death during child birth, as suggested by Berma Alva along with servants goes to Lokanadu, near Basarur and repairs and updated ancient shrines dedicated to various spirits worshipped by their families. After  this Birma returns to Majalottu and magically finds a charming female child in his house, who is named as  Siri and brought up by love and affection.

The Siri was married to one Kanthu Poonja, son of Shankaru Poonjedi from the mansion (‘guttu’) of Basarur. However Kanthu had ongoing illicit affair with a prostitute called Siddu (or Kinnega) in Basarur. Frustrated with deviant Kanthu, Siri divorces him and leaves Basarur with her child Kumara and servant Dāru.

Parasurama

In the west Coast of India people believe that legendary heroic sage Parasurama, endowed with divine powers, wielded his axe towards the Sea demanding that the Sea withdraw itself till the point marked by his axe. And it is believed that the Sea actually withdrew itself accordingly leaving a wide stretch of uncovered land. The legend traceable to Skanda Purana, appears to have been composed under the patronship of Kadamba Kings who were ruling the Malnad and Karavali regions [ 4^th to 7^th century CE]. Apart from the legendary record, there are geological evidences to suggest that a natural event of regression of Sea occurred sometime between ca 400 to 100 BC in the West Coast.

Old Port town of Basarur

It is interpreted that the port of Barace or Barcelore mentioned in Greek historical documents compiled by Ptolemy during 2^nd century CE refer to Basarur. In that case it would be the old town of Basarur that was later destroyed (ca 750 CE) due drastic northward shifting of the flow channel of River Varahi.

The Basarur town was reconstructed in 12^th century CE as it has been recorded as new town [‘Hosapattana’] in inscriptions dated 1154 CE [kg Vasantha Madhava1997]. This information combined with geological data suggests that that the old port town of Basarur was destroyed by natural factors between the period 8^th and 11^th Century CE necessitating relocation and reconstruction of the town.

Geological features of the area and the interpreted data reveals that two major events affected the region during and after the Megalithic period (ca.1000 - 400 BC).

Parasurama legend of land creation (retrieval of land from Sea) and Changes in shoreline near Basarur .0 submerged area under sea (ca 1000-200BC).1.Shoreline ca.1000 BC.2. Shoreline at present. 3.Old estuary of River Varahi ca.200 BC. 4. Present estuary of River Varahi. 5.Old estuary of Varahi  and Old Port of Basarur,ca.1000 BC. 6.Rebuilt new port of Basarur  (1150 CE).7. Old course of River Varahi  ca.700 CE.

It is interpreted that the original Basarur port was established on the estuary of river Varahi (also known as Haladi River) around 1000 BC or before when Basarur was on the   Western Sea coast and it was about 4 to 6 km inland as compared to present situation of coastline. The sea coast appears to have been receded westwards due to natural reasons during the period ca. 400-200 BC. In the legends this natural event of regression of sea has been attributed to the divine powers of legendary sage-hero Parasurama. After the regression of the Sea from the point of Basarur estuary, the port of Basarur was rendered geographically into an inland port.

Further it is interpreted (here) that the original Basarur port was destroyed around 750 CE due to migration and shifting of river Varahi and a new town was built on the southern bank of Varahi in the new place around 1150 CE. It is possible that River Varahi was unstable and shifting gradually northwards between the period 750 to 1100 CE.

Similarly due to further changes in river morphology, river bed silting and formation of river islands Basarur lost its significance after 1700 CE. According to Portuguese records, around the year 1740, major floods in the River Varahi destroyed the Basarur port and parts of the town including the fort and adjoin areas of Anagalli and Baragundi.

At present it has been reduced into a minor village due to drastic changes in historical coastal geomorphology and attendant   geopolitical circumstances.

(1) Regression of the Sea, attributed in legends to the myths of Parasurama. People were made to believe that Varuna (the Arabian Sea) receded back obediently in response to the wielding of Parasurama’s axe. The Position of Ancient Port of Basarur implies that originally it was established before the regression of the Sea attributed to Parasurama. The regression event probably occurred between  400 BC to 200 BC.

(2) The coastal rivers like Varahi (Haladi) shifted laterally towards North, possibly between the period Eighth to Eleventh Century CE due to Neo-tectonic activities in the west Coast. As a consequence of migration of Rivers, the Old Basarur was destroyed. Since the new Port town was built during 12^th Century CE as per inscriptions of Alupa Kings, it can be surmised that the migration of Rivers and destruction of the old Port occurred somewhere between 8^th and 11^th Century CE.

It can be recalled that between 7^th and 8^th Century River Netravati  also suffered drastic natural disasters in terms of shifting and migration of rivers in the Mangalore region also. And it forced Alupa Kings to abandon their Mangalore port base at Pandeshwara and shift to Udyavara.

Ò

References

“Hesarāda pattana Basarūr; Ondu adhyayana” ( Renowned town Basarur: A study) - [in Kannada], Compiled and Published by Sharada College Trust, Basarur-576211,Udupi District, 1997, p.255+14.
Ashoka Alva, K, Dr. (Ed) ( 2009) 'Siri Kavya Loka': ( A text of Tulu epic sung by Smt Kargi Shedthi of Nalkur, Belthangadi Taluk, Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka. Karnataka) Janapada Ranga Kalegala Adhyayana Kendra, MGM College Udupi. p.608+90.

Note: The interpreted dates in this post for transgression (ca 1000 BC) and regression events of the Arabian Sea (ca 400-200 BC) attributed to ‘Parasurama’ may be refined further with availability of new data in future.

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