256. Mangalore: Antiquity & Evolution -3

Evolution of an ancient primitive tribal village called Manki through Mangar to Mangala, Mangalapura and Mangalur along the evolutionary timeline, with all these vestigial toponyms still surviving, evinces the changing faces and episodes the city Mangalore underwent during the last five to seven millennia.
Another significant, though controversial, toponym attributed to the ancient Mangalore is Nitra or Nitria that have been cited in the ancient Greek travel reports.
Nitra - Nitria
Greek writers Pliny (ca.23-29 CE) has mentioned Nitria and Ptolemy (ca. 150 CE) cited Nitra in their descriptions of Indian ports in the geographic accounts they compiled from their contemporary sailors. Yule and subsequently Govind Pai and others have considered these place names as old names of Mangalore because of the affinity to the name of River Netravati that flows in Mangalore.
Thus it can been considered that the name Netra or Netriya (Nitra or Nitria in Greek versions) was the old original name of the river Netravati and the adjacent port town on the bank of River Netravati.
..A Map of ancient Mangalore to be added
Netra means eye in Sanskrit. Possibly the Sanskirt language had permeated to the southern India by ca. 500 BC.
The Phalguni River was flowing in Kodialbail and Netravathi was flowing in Attavara Pandeshwara valleys during the beginning of CE.(Posts 253,254). The resultant morphology or shape of the island like land mass between Phalguni and Netravati appeared like an eye shaped peninsula, giving it the name of ‘Netra’. Thus it appears that the River Netravati derived its name from the eye shape of the land (Netra =eye) during early years of the Common Era.
Apparently the the name Netra for the port land was abandoned after the migration of said rivers and concurrent loss of the netra (eye) shape of the land. Thus the river beside Netra must also have been named ‘Netra’ or ‘Netriya’ which was later in the due course modified to ‘Netravati’.
The only connected vestigial name preserved along the river course happens to be ‘Netra-kere’ near Maripalla to the East of Mangalore.
Alupas from Alupe vilage
The merchant kings who ruled Tulunadu probably during the first fourteenth centuries of the CE were known as Alupa Kings. The origin of the word Alupa has been widely debated. They ruled parts of larger parts of Tulunadu probably from the beginnig of 4th CE upto 14 century CE,as evident from various inscriptions of the period, until taken over by Vijayanagar Kings, It appears that it is logical to assume that the name suggest the name of their hometown ‘Alupe’ a village on the banks of river Netravati in Eastern part of Mangalore (Post .74 ). It can be recalled that Govinda Pai + and Gururaja Bhat++ while discussing the various possibilities on the origin of the word, ‘Alupa’, have also felt independantly in their respective works whether Alupa was connected with the village Alupe.
Besides the village name, there are additional proofs cited below to confirm that Alupas were from Alupe village.
Aluvakheda
(1) The territory of Alupa kings has been described as ‘Aluva-kheda’ or ‘Aluvakheda 6000’ in several inscriptions. Ptolemy described the ‘Olokhoira’ which has been interpreted as Greek version of the word ‘Aluva-kheda’.
It is interesting to note that ancient suffixes –pe (as in village names Alupe, Didupe, Bajape etc) as well as –va (as in village names Shirva, Kakva etc) represent village areas. Therefore, we can deduce that the ‘Alupe’ village was also known as ‘Aluva’ village sometimes.
The word ‘Kheda’ means a gorge like depressed area bounded by steep cliffs. (Compare ‘kheDa’ with ‘kheDDā’, a large pit used traditionally to trap and tame wild elephants.). The description of the word ‘kheda,’ can be rightfully applied to the village of Alupe and Maroli, that are located in a large depressed gorge area bordered with steep cliffs.Thus it appears that the word ‘Aluvakheda ‘ was originally applied to the geography of Alupe, the hometown of Alupa Kings.
(2). The rare Sun temple of Mangalore is located within the gorge of Aluva-kheda described above.
(3).The ‘Kulashekara’ area named after one of the later Alupa Kings, called Veera Kula Shekara, is close to the Alupe- Maroli region.
Alupa Emblem
The royal seal on the Belamnnu copper plate inscription of Aluvarasa II (dated 730-760 CE) as well as Alupa coins display an emblem of twin fishes. A single fish was the emblem of Tamil Pandya Kings.The fish emblems of Pandya and Alupa Kings appear to have been inspired by earlier civilizations of Sindhu Saraswati (Harapa Mohenjodaro) where a large number of fish symbols have been discovered. The fish was a divine symbol for early marine merchant cultures as evident from the adoption of Matysa as the first incarnation of Lord Vishnu by Veda Vyasa.Thus it appears that the fish was a symbol of divinity among the ancient marine traders of India since the period of Sindhu-Saraswati civilization.

Alupa coin samples. (after: Govindaraya Prabhu & Nityanand Pai, 2006)

Pandya Dhanajaya
Alupa Kings designated themselves as ‘Shri Pandya Dhanajaya’ in the coins minted during their regime.The phrase ‘Sri Pandya Dhanajaya’adopted by the Alupa kings in their coins apparently compared themselves to the Arjuna, the hero of Mahabharat. The surname ‘Pandya’ has also been adopted by the Pandya Kings of Tamilnadu.The Tamil Pandya Kings were considered by several authors as progeny of Pāndavas of Mahabharat. However, it seemly logical that the word ‘Pandya’ or ‘Pandi-ya’ was connected to ‘Pāndi’ rather than Pandavas. The large boats used for marine trade in ancient south India were known as Pandi boats. Thus, an owner of a pāndi boat would be known as a Pāndiya or Pāndya.This explanation seems appropriate in view of the fact that Alupa Kings were Pāndi based marine traders. Probably, this explanation also applies to the origin of ancient Tamil Pandya kings.The place name ‘Pondichery’ has preserved the vestiges of Pandi marine merchant culture in the East Coast as well.
Alupas deserted Mangalore
Epigraphic inscriptions have suggest that Alupa Kings ruled ancient Mangar(u) or Mangarur from ca. 425 CE to ca. 750 CE. ** Epigraphic data for the period prior to ca. 425 CE has not been available so far, hence the earlier period is rather hazy. During ca. 750 CE Alupas abruptly changed their capital from home town Mangalore to Udyavara for historically unexplained reasons.
It appears that Alupas abruptly changed their venue due to intimidating earthquakes and consequent migration of rivers that affected ancient Mangalore ca. 750 CE.
The Netravati River was flowing through the valleys of Attavara and Pandeshwara probably till beginning of 8th Century CE. Probably, during ca. 750 CE due to sudden earth movements the Netravati changed its course and began to occupy the present path. Consequently, due to southward migration of ancient River Netravati, the port of Pandeshwara was closed down. Thus Alupa rulers abandoned Pandeshwara port of ancient Mangalore and migrated northward and settled in Udyavara, which was a upcoming port at that time ( Post ).The Alupas further returned to hometown Mangalore from Udyavara during the beginning of Tenth Century CE.
One interesting place name has preserved this hereto undocumented historic change or migration of flow path of the ancient River Netrāvati for the benefit of posterity. That wonderful place name is Jeppu!
Jappu, Jappina Mogaru
The place name ‘Jeppu’ or ‘Jeppina Mogaru’, as is known now, has been much abused and misunderstood. It should be ‘Jappu’ or ‘Jappina Mogaru’. The Tulu word ‘Jappu’ means to decline representing the historical lowering of water level in the river. (On the contrary, the erroneous usage, ‘Jeppu’ means to sleep). And ‘mogaru’ represents a river bank. Hence Jappina Mogaru represents the name adopted by the people to the river bank where the water level declined abruptly during the history.
There is one more mysterious aspect connected with the geological history of the village Jappina Mogaru. The revenue survey maps prepared by the surveyors of British regime during 1894, show two halfs of Jappina Mogaru divided by the river Netravati. It means that the original village of Jappina Mogaru has been bifurcated into two pieces during the last century , separated by the present flow position of River Netravati.
Ancient Temples of Mangalore
Apart from the Mangaladevi we discussed in the previous post, atleast ancient seven of the well known temples in Mangalore were installed before 10th Century CE. All these temples were originally installed on the banks of ancient rivers or perennial water Springs of Mangalore.
Mangalapura
Badami Chalukya epigraphs of 7th Century CE cited the name of ancient Mangalore as Mangalapura*.The name Mangalapura is popular among our Malayali neighbours even today.
To begin with, Mangalore was under the spell of Naga and Spirit worship cults since the ancient agricultural phase.Sun worship was evident during pre-Dravidian Munda cultural phase.Footprints of Buddhism were evident in the old place name ‘Mayi-kala’ for ancient Mangalore (Post 65,70). Early Skanda- Shiva- Ganesha cults collided with Buddhist cult. Bhagavathi cult evolved as a consequence of assimilation of Spirit cult and Buddhism. Rennaisance of Hinduism by Shankara led to the transition of Bhagavathi cult into widespead Durga cult.
Mayi-kala
With the advent of Arabs and later Bearys Islam made its presence in Mangalore.Some of the oldest Mosques of Mangalore (like Bunder, Kandathapalli) were also originally established during the period of 8-10 century CE. One of the old Buddhist names of Mangalore, ‘Mayikala’, has been preserved especially among the Muslim Beary community. One of the possible reasons for this could be that Mayikala existed in the Bunder region which was a major business area in the early history of Mangalore.Bearies, being a business community, frequented Mayikala area of Mangalore.
Kudupu
Kudupu appears to be an ancient village of ancient Kudu agricultural phase.It probably was an ancient center of Naga (serpent) worship. With advent of the Kumara-Skanda cult in the early centuries of CE it was developed into a temple dedicated to Kumara (Subramanya) worship. The old rivers flowing beside Kudupu changed its course with passage of time, leaving behind the evidences in the form of old river valleys that characterize the area around Kudupu.
Pandeshwara
In the olden days the large merchant boats engaged in trading rice, cereals and spices were known as ‘PānDi’ and the boat harbour was known as ‘PānDela’. River Netravati was flowing along Attavara- Pandeshwara valleys and joining the Sea near present Goodshed area where the ancient PanDela and the temple and township were located.
An Ishwara (Shiva) temple was built by the Alupa merchants in the PanDela (ancient port) area ca 4-5 century CE, and it was eventually known as PānDeshwara.
Another similar port place-name of ’PānDeshwara’ representing another ancient Alupa port exists near Hangārkatta, located between the coasts of Udupi and Kundapur.
Neere Shivalaya
The Neere-shivalaya Somanatha temple was originally an ancient Alupa temple devoted to Trimurtis- Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesha according to epigraphs found near Gollarkeri.* Neere Shivalaya is located near the ancient, Alupa period, PānDela of Mangalore.Neera Shivalaya, (neer=water) as the name suggests, was a Shiva temple (on an island) surrounded by waters of ancient River Netrāvati.
Sharavu
The Sharavu village, now part of heart of the Mangalore city area is known for an ancient temple dedicated to Lord Shiva and Ganapati. The place name Sharavu has been interpreted as ‘shara’ (=arrow) +’pura’ (=town) by legend creators of Stala-purana. However, the available geological evidences suggest that area could have been ‘Saravu’ (sara =lake, vu=village) to begin with. The waterworn pebble bearing sediments covering the Sharavu-Suchitra-Prabhat valley area suggest that area was under water (lake), connected with Phalguni river of Kudu and Kudla phase (post 253).
The original ancient temples appear to have been renovated during 10th to 11th century CE as evident from the study of idols in the temple.
Kadire
Kadire means ear or corn of paddy.It was customary to distribute corns of paddy (‘Kadire’) during ‘New crop’ (‘Posatt’, Puddar, Puttari, Onam) festival among the farming communities since ages.Now, the area is known as ‘Kadri’. During the course of history, some of the legend writers have modified the place-name also to ‘Kadali’ (=banana) or ‘Kadali-vana’ (orchard of banana).
Earthquakes resulted in upheaval of Kadri plateau ca.400-600 CE. After the earth movements, the flow path of Kudla segment of river Phalguni was diverted to new path. And a few new perennial water springs originated on the escarpment side of the Kadire cliff. The village on the top of the Kadire cliff was called ‘Nantur’ (Post 175).

Kadire was a Buddhist monastery till being occupied by the Natha sages Macchendra and Gorakha Naths. Natha sages revived Hinduism and led the transition of Buddhist to Natha/Shaiva cults during 10 th Century CE. The date of installation of the Lokeshwara bronze idol  at Kadire that evinces features indicative of transition from Buddhism to Hinduism has been reported as 968 CE.

The unique name ‘Manjunatha’ for Lord Shiva was created at Kadire.Later when a Shiva Linga was taken from Kadire temple to Dharmastala (ancient name ‘Kuduma’) another abode of Manjunatha was created.Origin of the word ‘manju’ in ‘Manjunatha’ has been debated.The word manju means beautiful (Prakrit)or mist (Tulu); the Tulu word ‘manja’ also means an elevated plateau like region. However, Manja or Manju (as in Manjanna) was also an ancient male proper name among Dravidians and pre-Dravidians. It appears that Macchendra had a son named Manju who incidentally expired in the area and Macchendra erected a memorial shrine in his memory in the tradition of Spirit worship vogue in the region.The name was extended to the form of Shiva with the signature suffix ‘Natha’ that represented the cult popularized by Macchendra Natha.
The Manjunatha Temple of Alupa period has been renovated further during Vijaynagar rule (14th Century CE) and subsequent periods.
Maroli
Maroli village, originally named after the ancient Marava tribes (Mara+Oli), is proximal to Alupe village, the home town of Alupa Kings. In this village there is a rare ancient temple, built by Alupa rulers and dedicated to the worship of Sun God (Surya-narayana).
The temple is located in a large circular valley formed after the migration of river path in the Maroli-Alupe villages.The structure of temple is said to be of ca. 11-12 century CE.
The origin of Sun worship in India dates back to ancient Munda tribal people.The cult of Sun worship (Singbonga) was also the tradition among Munda cultures that predated Tulu-Dravida civilization in the Karavali.
Attāvara
The Netravati River was flowing through the valleys of Attavara and Pandeshwara probably till 7th Century CE. Afterwards due to sudden earth movements the Netravati changed its course and began to occupy the present path.
There are two ancient temples in Attavara: One Uma Maheshwara, another Chakrapāni. The Uma Maheshwara temple is located on the banks of the old river course suggesting that originally it was built on the southern bank of the old river.Dr Gururaja Bhat suggested that the Ganapati idol of Attavara displays sculptural styles of Seventh Century CE. The original temples were renovated during subsequent periods.
Later Temples
Hanuman temple in the Gollarkeri, Mangalore was established in the 14th Century*. After the advent of Saraswaths from Portuguese Goa (ca. 16-17th Century CE), The Venkataramana (Dongarakeri, Car Street) and Mahamayi temples were installed in Mangalore. Māri temples (Halekote, Bolar and Urwa) were established during the regime of Keladi Nayaka Kings (15-17th Century CE).
Seventeenth Century also witnessed advent of Portuguese, German, French and British into Mangalore and the establishment of some of the oldest missions and churches in Mangalore like Basel Mission, Milagres and Rosario.
The Brahma Baidarkala Garodi at Kankanādi was established in the year 1874. The Kālikāmba temple, maintained by Vishwakarma community, was shifted from Mahakāli-paDpu, Jappu, to Car Street area.
Kudroli Gokarnatha temple was installed originally by Narayana Guru during the year 1912*.The name ‘Kudroli’ has been analysed by some as Kudure+Oli (a village of horse). However, the geological data suggest that it was a ‘kuduru+Oli’ (a village of river islands) as the region was covered by the estuary of the ancient river Phalguni in the historical past.
Kudroli Gokarnatha temple has been renovated in recent years into a beautiful structure such that it constitutes presently a major tourist attraction in the city of Mangalore.The annual Navaratri/Dasara celebrations centered in this temple has been known widely as Mangalore Dasara.
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References:
Manohara Prasad. ’Nammuru’: (Serial articles on historical aspects of Tulunadu). Udayavani (Kannada Daily). Manipal.
*Temples of Dakshina Kannada (in Kannada) Ed: Murulidhar Upadhya Hiriyadaka & P.N. Narasimha Murthy. (2000). Ambalapādi. Udupi. 436 p.
**Govindaraya Prabhu, S. & Nityananda Pai, M (2006). The Alupas: Coinage and History.Sanoor, Karkala.200 p.
+ Manjeshwara Govinda Pai ( )
++Dr. Padur Gururaja Bhat (1963) Tulunadu. 228 p. Reprinted in 2009 by Dr Padur Gururaja Bhat Memorial Trust, Udupi.
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255. Import of ‘kuda’ element in place names

Lexicography and Onomastics are two closely related disciplines. Each complements the other. Linguistic connections are noticed between territories from an unknown historical past. The word ‘Kuda’, found in various languages, is an example to drive home the point. ‘Kuda’, as a suffix or prefix, is seen in place names all over India in general and in coastal belt in particular. Place names in other Asian countries too bear testimony to this observation.
Multiple meanings:
Whereas Ravi gives (in Posts-253 and 254) more stress on Ethnonym or Eponym function of popular place name ‘Kudla’ for Mangalore in Tulunadu (i.e. coastal Karnataka), I still hold the view that this Toponym bears testimony to geographical features. Multiple meanings of word elements make it difficult to decipher overall meaning of a place name, which is invariably a compound word. It is subject to many influences – geographical, cultural, political, natural catastrophes, migrations and lingual. So, modern onomastics consider that ‘a name is not simply equivalent to the sum total of its parts, but mutates at the moment of coinage’.
Kuda – what it imports?
Several meanings are found in Dictionaries of Tulu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Sri Lankan, and Maldives-Dhivehi, and in Dravidian Etymological Dictionary) for ‘kuda’, a Prakrit/Pali/Dravidian/Austro-Asian word:
Coastal Context:
Kuda/Kulhi/Kula/Ko(a)du: Used mostly describing coastal landscape, receiving sea water. It means a curve, bay, cove, gulf or sand-bank of sea or river.
‘Kuduma’ means ‘a ferry’ as per A. Manner’s Tulu-English Dictionary.
Kudaru/Kudiru/Kuduru (DED 1700) = Low ground, a hollow, bed of stream, stream. Kudura in Gond means ‘sand’. In Kurukh, it is ‘low situated rice-fields’.
‘Kuda’ in Tamil means West .(Eg. Kuda Kadal) and ‘Kuna’, East (Eg: Kuna Kadal).

Interior context:
It is also found in interior place names. In such instances, it means a hill ravine, river valley, and a nook, corner or remote and isolated place.
In Kannada, ‘Kuda’ means ‘a state of being crooked, bent, curved, a curve’. In Tulu ‘Gudke’ means crooked man. Tulu has more affinity to Kannada, especially old Kannada.
Kuda changes to Koota/Kooda when it means ‘meeting’.
In Prakrit, it means ‘a snare’ whereas in Kuwi, it is ‘cage, hen coop’.
Kuda and Kuru have the same meaning of ‘short or small’ in Tamil and Sri Lankan. Whereas in Kannada, kuru means ‘raised land or small mound or hill’.
Buddhist cave connection
Kuda means a retiring place, i.e. Buddhist Monasteries with stuptas, viharas and Buddhist cave arts. In Tulu Kude/gude (Kannada - Guhe, Sanskrit – Kuhara/Gahvara) means hole, secret place or hiding place.
Ku – a Root Word:
Reader may revisit the Post-193. It is made clear that ‘Kuda’ is a geographical term. Kuda > Kudtale refers to landed property. Place being close to water body, farming becomes important occupation of that area, besides fishing, toddy tapping and trade & commerce. So Kuda/Kudar/Kudaal/Kudla has acquired the meaning of agricultural land and people traditionally engaged in farming are called Kudva/Kuduma (Goa/Maharashtra cognate is ‘kunbi) in coastal area. Woodlanders in hilly tracks are called Kudiya > (Male) kudiyaru. Kodagu name is based on ‘Kuda > Kodu’.
Some examples
Kudla: Old name of Mangalore, still surviving in local tongue. It is coined for identifying the region, nestled in river basin/valley or at the confluence of two rivers, Netravati and Phalguni; hence has a ‘topographical signature’ of river basin. Its cognate is found in ‘Kudal’ in Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra and in ‘Kudār’, which is the old name of Malpe, a fishing town in Udupi District. The scarp, i.e. steep slope, of rocky islands, stands as true witness to ‘Kudār’. There may be a remote chance of these rocky crops having Buddhist caves before submerging. Evidences of Naga and Spirit worship are reported at these islands (See Post-182-183 – Uliyaragoli to Malpe 1&2 and Post-184 – The Magic of Malpe). It may, therefore, offer an interesting material for future research.
Kuda Caves
Kuda is a small village in Kolad at Janjira Hills Valley (Maharashtra). These rock-cut caves are classic examples of Buddhist cave art. In many of the caves in Kuda Hill, there are evidences to testify that monks used them as dwelling places. The inscriptions, letters and paintings in the Kuda Hill show that these caves are built between 1st and sixth Century BC (600-100 BCE). The Kuda caves give a magnificent view of the valley below. Hills terrain is a secluded place, hence an appropriate name ‘Kuda’ (Prakrit/Pali/Dravidian).
Kadri Hill
Kadri Hill caves in Mangalore, frequented by Buddhist monks for meditation and later on by Nath Panthi mendicants, make me to deduce Kuda>Kudla was a natural nomenclature for the area.
Hirakuda
Hirakuda Dam is the longest earthen dam across Mahanadi River near Sambalpur in Orissa, started in 1946 and completed in, 1957. It has a touch of Sir M. Visveswaraya. Before the devastating floods of 1937, he proposed a detailed investigation for storage reservoirs in the Mahanadi basin to address to the problem of floods in Mahanadi Delta. It may be interesting to note that name of Orissa is derived from original name of Odra Vishaya/Odra Desa. (Significance of Od/Odi is discussed in earlier Posts).
Kudankulam/Koodankulam
It is in Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. A Nuclear Power Plant is located here.
Naachichikhudai, etc.Tamil.Net explains that these Sri Lankan place names fit into geographical description, being having a cove and curved coastline.
Moolaikkuda
This is a Sri Lankan place name for an isolated and remote place.Kuda Bandos, Kuda Hurra etc
These are atolls in Maldives. In Maldivian language Dhivehi, ‘kuda’ means marsh-land.
Kudamaloor (Kudam+al+oor)
It is located near Kottayam Town (Kerala) on the banks of Konakiri Canal. Konakiri Canal is a tributary of River Kudamaloor, which flows westward, forming a border line of Aarpookara and Kudamaloor. The land, being fertile, has many kinds of tropical trees. The greenery makes the place picturesque.
Classification
Dilation of ‘Kuda’ may be beyond the ordinary understanding and hence, may not be readily accepted. Classification of some of the place names may not be interesting but it may prove material to a serious Tulu researcher of future.
Conclusion:
I have come across a Native American proverb of unknown tribe, which goes thus: “Tell me I will forget, Show me and I may not remember. Involve me, I’ll understand.” We have been urging our readers to involve themselves by making comments but in vain. This reminds me another quote, read in ‘Jumbled Words’ game in Indian Express (28.06.2010):
“I honestly believe it is better to know nothing than to know what is not so” – Josh Billings.
As “All knowledge has its origins in our perceptions” according to Leonardo Da Vinci, isn’t the Billings’ statement a bit paradoxical? Search for meaning. It is an inspiration for a meaningful life. One can imagine the struggles of Siddhartha before attaining enlightenment and becoming a Buddha?
H.VISHWANATH, PUNE
14.10.2010

254. Mangalore: Antiquity & Evolution -2

The place name ‘Mangalur’ evidently came into existence after ca. 1400 CE during Vijayanagar administration in Mangalore. Before that the port town Mangalore was known under various other names as documented by travellers from abroad. One of the odd names recorded by foreign travellers for Mangalore is ‘Mangaruth’. We shall explore some of these place names and the connected obscure pages of history of Mangalore.
Which was the oldest known inhabited area within ancient Mangalore?
Kudu phase
As discussed in the previous part of this post (No. 253), note that there are atleast two points that are likely to form significant temporal markers in the study of evolution of Tulunadu:
1. Early agricultural phase in Tulunadu, the Kudu phase, is correlated with published archeo-botanical data available for peninsular India.Thus the phase can be fixed at 3000-2000 BC timespan in general.
2. The Kudu phase and the formation of Kudu- villages (Kudla, Kudupu etc) were in turn correlated with the period when River Phalguni (Gurupur) was flowing westwards in the area now known as Alike-Kudroli-Kodialbail valley.Thus the period of flow of Phalguni has be equated with 3000-2000 BC period. (The existence of the river in this region could be still older, but it survived atleast up to the Kudu phase.Let us designate this ancient river segment as ‘Kudla River’.
Ancient Netravathi
Another interesting historical data that can be correlated to the Kudu phase is that the River Netravathi was flowng in the ancient river path of Phalnir-Attavara- Pandeshwara valley region. Then, it was joining the Arabian Sea near Pandeshwara Goods shed area. Let us designate this river segment as ‘Attavara River’. Pandeshwara, originally known as ‘Pandela’ (=port of ‘pāndi’ boats) was the sea-faring port for merchant boats during Alupa Rule.
There were atleast two ‘kudu’ hamlets on the bank of this ancient river segment of Netravathi: ‘Kudpadi’ (a part of Jeppu) and ‘Kudthadka’ (a part of Bajal).
Manki
You may be surprised to know that one of the oldest names of Mangalore was ‘Manki’! The place name is preserved as Manki stand near Mangaladevi temple in Bolar area of southern Mangalore. During the British period in Mangalore, the stand (station) for tongas and vehicles was designated as Manki stand. (Some people erroneously considered that it was ‘monkey stand’).
The ancient word Manki has been analysed as Mam+ki (in earlier posts herein), wherein Mam represented elevated area and ‘ki’ a spatial attribute suffix.However, revised studies suggest that the word should be considered as mang+ki wherein Mang represents an immigrant Austro-asiatic tribe and ki stands for village or a spatial suffix. The suffix ‘ke’ or ‘ki’ (=village) is an ancient (Neolithic Bronze age) Austro-asiatic word of Vietnamese origin. (Refer: Keith Weller Taylor: The Birth of Vietnam.).
Infact the place name Manki has been repeated along the West Coast as if tracing the migration path of these Mang tribes. There is one Manki near Honavar, Uttara Kannada district. One Permanki (Greater Manki, ‘peri’ or ‘peru’=larger, greater) village exists near Ulaibettu on the banks of River Gurupur. Similar manki place names have been found in Kasauli, Himachal Pradesh as well in Nowshera district of Pakistan.One Manki is also found in the islands of Papua New Guinea.Besides these there are several Mankar, Mankapur, Mankarai, Mankatha etc place names in India, which appear as modified versions of ‘Manki’ village names.
Mangar
The forgotten and vanished/assimailated Mang tribes have left behind one more signature village in ancient Mangalore close to Manki stand (Mangaladevi). The place was known as Mangar! If you are interested in fact finding personally, you can walk westward fom Mangaladevi (and Ramakrishna Mutt) and find the forgotten place name ‘Mangar’ mentioned as ‘Mangar kshetra’ in the signboards of Spirit shrines in the western part of Mangaladevi near Yemmekere. Mangar, possibly was Mang+ār, the field (ār) of Mang tribes.
Mang tribes
There were several village names along West Coast and peninsular India that have retained the signatures of the bygone Mang tribes. Place names like Mangra, Mankar, Mangaon, Mangliya gaon, Mangolpuri, Mangliyavas, Mangalagiri etc are the possible vestiges of the Mang era. Mangs were a nomadic tribe that migrated far and wide. Mangols might have been a derived or related tribes.
Māng tribes may have vanished from southern Mangalore, because of displacement by later occupants. However, several sects of Māng tribes are reported from Marharastra and Andhra regions.
Mangaruth, Mangar-ta
Traveller Cosmas who visited the West Coast during ca. 545 CE has recorded the place name of Mangalore as ‘Mangaruth’. (Post No 87.)
Manjeshwara Govinda Pai in one of his essays has reflected that ‘Mangaruth’ could be a misnomer for Mangalur.However the presence of place name Mangar even today, even though lesser known, suggests that Cosmas reference to ‘Mangaruth’ was not out of place.
Tulu PaDdana have also documented the ancient place name Mangar.PaDdana have described (as mentioned in Tulu Nighantu) Mangar-ta kaDapu, Mangar-ta ghatta etc. The ‘-ta’ in Tulu represents the ‘of’ preposition of English language.Theefore Mangar-ta kaDapu means the ferry of Mangar; Mangar-ta ghatta means the Hill of Mangar, Mangarta pānDela means the port of Mangar and so on. Overall, it appears that the word ‘Mangarta’ must have been documented as ‘Mangarut’ by Cosmas.
Sixth Century CE markers
We can now visualize that during the period of visit of the traveller Cosmas (ca.545 CE) the names documented in ancient Tulu PaDdanas such as Mangarta pānDela (port of Mangar) was at present Pandeshwar; Mangar-ta kaDapu (ferry of Mangar) was just North of and close to present Yemmekere (now a dried up tank); Mangar-ta ghatta (Hill of Mangar) appears to be the present Light house hill.
Conversely, the origin of these relevant ‘Mangar-ta’ paDdanas also can be traced back to not less than Sixth Century CE.
Mangala
Several aspects of the word Mangala, its possible origin and scope, has been described (post 90. Mangala ). However, some additional interesting clues may be discussed here.
The spatial association of the place names Manki, Mangar and Mangala in southern Mangalore suggests certain new possibilities to the origin of this word Mangala. If Manki and Mangar are Mang+ki and Mang+ar, the origin of Mangala have been Mang+ala, which means Mang tribal settlement on the bank of River.
The evolutionay sequence of place names Manki> Mangar> Mangala were possibly employed by different generations of tribes of different origin that settled in this southern Mangalore region during different layers of time.
Mangaladevi
The diety of Mangaladevi has origin connected with Natha cult in Mangalore.Macchendra and Gorakha Naths (10th Century CE) are credited with the establishment of Manjunatha temple at Kadire, Mangalore (Posts.77,79,80,82,83,85,88,92). Macchendra had an ardent disciple in Kerala known as Queen Pingala. She followed the Natha sages and came to Mangalore; but due to adverse health conditions, she expired on the way while she reached Mangalore. The event occurred during the early part of 10th Century CE.
The locals built a memorial shrine in her name in the ‘Mangalā’ village, in the tradition of spirit Bhagavathi worship of that time and eventually it was reknowned as ‘Mangalā devi’ (The diety of Mangalā). The shrine of Mangaladevi was renovated subsequently by Alupa Kings and Mangaladevi has been adopted as a form of diety Durga Parameshwari.
Mangalādevi temple has become a major landmark of Mangalore since then. Vijayanagar rulers in Karavali during 14th Century CE renamed the town as Mangalur in honour of the diety Mangalādevi.
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253. Mangalore: Antiquity & Evolution-1

Mangalore has changed immensely during the last five millennia! The city of Mangalore initially evolved as a group of agricultural villages located on ancient river banks some 5000 years ago! The position (flow-paths) of the ancient rivers of Mangalore, have changed with passage of time, but the original agricultural signature villages have remained as fossil place names!
India was populated by early humans migrating since ca.120,000 years according to recent studies. Early pre-history of Mangalore is hazy but it was definitely home for numerous ancient tribal immigrants from Africa, northern India and Austro-Asiatics from Southeast Asia as found and immortalised in the numerous ethnonyms preserved to this date.

Kudla
The familiar Tulu name for Mangalore is ‘Kudla’. Often the name ‘Kudla’ has been confused with ‘Koodla’ (=confluence of rivers). However, the confluence of two rivers that bound the Mangalore city at present, namely Phalguni (Gurupur) and Netravathi, happened only in the year 1887. (Cf: Post 98 in this blog). Before that period the two rivers were flowing independently and not showing any features of confluence! Therfore, the ‘koodla’ or confluence definition for kudla ventured in older posts herein (No16, 17) or other inspired texts requires amendments.
The word ‘Kudla’ (kuD+la) should be understood as agricultural village on river bank. Let us look into this explanation in detail.

Ancient Agricultural phase :(ca.3000 BC-400 BC)
Tulu rural people have a special fascination for the humble horse-gram (‘kuDu’), do you know why? ‘KuDu’ (Tulu) or ‘Huruli’ (Kannada), or the horse gram was the earliest agricultural food crop preferentially grown by our ancestors some 4 to 5 millenia ago as found out by archeo-botanical studies in southern India!
Within Mangalore there are atleast four areas that were formerly (ancient, ca. 3000-1500BC) dedicated to the cultivation of earliest known crop, the horse gram (‘kudu’). Of these, the place names ‘Kudla’ and ‘Kudupu’ are well known.

Ancient Rivers of Mangalore: Phalguni
Geological studies (conducted by our team during the last two decades) evince interesting historical and paleo-geographic data on the rivers of Mangalore. The flow paths (channels) of the two rivers of Mangalore, namely Phalguni (Gurupur) and Netravathi, have continuously changed paths several times during the period of last 10,000 years or more.
One of the interesting aspects of geological and historical data correlation is that the River Phalguni was flowing along what is presently known as Kodialbail (recognisible as a paleo-valley paths), cutting across Mahatma Gandhi Road near TA Pai convention center and flowing across Alake and joined the Sea near Kuduroli. As far as geological evidences for the existence of river channel are concerned, you can see distinct presence of water worn quartz pebbles preserved in the soil zones all along the paleo- river path described above.
The ancient village names actually support the geological findings. The name Kudla suggests agricultural/farm area (kuD) beside a river (‘ala’). Similarly ’Alake’ (Ala+ke) is a village on river bank, ‘ke’ being a spatial suffix of south-east Asian Austro-asiatic origin. Thus we can correlate the time of flow of Phalguni along Kodialbail to the ancient agricultural Kudla phase estimated at ca.3000-2000 BC, based on archeo-botanical studies in southern India.
Further, Kuduroli represents a village (Oli= village) of ‘kuduru’s (=riverine islands). The ‘Kuduroli’ place name may be slightly later in time and coined after the period the river shifted its position northwards from Alake- Kuduroli area.

Kudu, horse gram
Kud (u) =meant agricultural land ( ‘kuDu’, pre-Dravidian word of Munda origin: ku+du, ku=good,prosperous; du=land).Kudu (=horse gram) represented one of the earliest grown and consumed cereal grain in southern India. According to paleo-botanical evidences, Rice, the major food crop of the south, was introduced in southern India probably during ca.800-400 BC period. (Kudugol, Kannada word, is an agricultural/farming, crop cutting sickle.).
Incidentally the equivalent Kannada word ‘huruli’ is a modification of ‘uruli’, where uru=land and uru+li means product of earth. Thus both the words ‘kudu as well as ‘uruli’ reflect the deep respect early farmers had toward the earth.
Kudla= A habitation formed during ‘kudu’ phase. (Kud+la, Kud=agricultural land, la= a habitation beside a flowing stream,river).The word ‘Kudla’ has been also interpreted as kooD+la or confluence of rivers, but the agricultural explanation appears more appropriate because in the original area identified as ‘Kudla’ (or Kodialbail) proper, there is no evidence of any sort of confluence of rivers!
Kudupu= An agricultural (Kudu) village.
Kudthadka (near Bajal) = A field (aDka) dedicated to farming. kuDuta +aDka
Kudpadi (Jeppu)= A shady zone (shrub or tree grown area=’pāDi’) dedicated to Kudu farming.
Almost all these places were originally on the banks of river, now with passage of time most of the rivers have changed their flow paths due to earth movements. KuDupa (=farmer) was one of the ancient proper names among Tulu people.
It can be seen that ‘koDipu’ (=to sprout) evolved from the original word ‘kuDu’. With this, ‘koDi’ and ‘koDa’ place names like Kodipadi, Kodavur etc evolved.

Pre-Dravidian signatures
Kudu place names are not exclusive to Tulunadu. Infact Tulu people have inherited this word from the pre-Dravidian culture of Munda civilization had dominated in southern India, before the advent of Dravidian speakers. Even though there were skirmishes between the Munda aborigines and Dravidian immigrants as testified in 'Devi Mahatme' and other epics of the period, Dravidian culture gradually absorbed essence of of the older Munda language and culture as testified by the presence of older Munda words as well as continuation of Munda place names in Tulunadu and other pats of southern India. As a proof you of pervasive Munda civilization in southern India, you can find kudu place names in other parts of Karnataka and Maharastra such as Kudle, Kudne, Kuditi, Kuditini etc. Besides, ‘Kudubi’ or ‘Kudumbi’ were an ancient agricultural tribes.

Associated Naga cult
One of the possibilities apparent in the analysis of Kudu village names is the growth and association of Naga worship cults along with the Munda agricultural phase. Prehistoric agricultural development in Tulunadu lead to destruction of natural forest areas and the wild serpents began to invade cultivated farm areas. The farming tribes were appalled at the sight of snakes that had magical powers to terminate people by their venomous stings. The early farmer had no other choice but to pray ardently to these serpents for the security of his family and livestock.
The Kudupu village was an ancient centre of Naga worship.(Later it was transformed to centre of Kumara/Skanda worship). The derived word ‘koDapu’ means to sting (like a serpent bite). And the word ‘koDa’ also represented a ‘Naga’ or serpent. A special word in this connection is ‘koDamaNi’ (as found in the name of the Tulu Spirit Kodamanittaya) which possibly represents the ‘Nagamani’ or the mythical gemstone found on the hood of cobra.
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252. Rediscovering Tulunadu

Strikingly odd conclusions or opinions, which go beyond ordinary understanding of a reader, attract a ridicule or disdain. More often than not, he (reader) is sceptical of the findings. This situation is more pertinent to the Posts, discussing Place-names of Tulunadu in this Blog. These place-names are a sort of riddles, hard to crack. The other day, I confronted Ravi with a teaser on Bijai and Bejja (Post-251). I observed, “Our obsession to ‘African Tribes’ should not be over-emphasised.” His quiet reply was very direct: “Many of the history items are obviously obscure. These aspects are not documented so far totally. I am only to thread through these strings, using logical evidences of migration patterns. I know that you are sceptical of these all. Naturally, anyone should be sceptical to begin with. But what makes a sense is that when deduced strings are logically matching with one another. Alternate explanation, if any, should correlate in space and time, to be realistic.” Yes, Ravi is ‘ploughing a lonely furrow’ when he is not following trodden path.

Evolved Language
It is difficult to sift, weigh and conclude when materials are scattered. These are available in the form of monuments, inscriptions, popular legends, historical writings (genuine or skewed), some loose strands of writings, i.e. superficial data, and fossil/archaic words, traceable in place-names but hinting to some base language, lost, assimilated or forgotten. Origin of such words is not clear. Evocative words or some other links tend to rouse some interest or impulse to search for some long-lost or forgotten materials of history.

Obelisks of Persepolis
Not so long, I chanced to glance through a Book: ‘A History of Babylonia and Assyria’, written in 1900 AD by Roberts William Rogers. He gives a vivid picture of how the strange language(s) used in inscriptions on the Obelisks or Pillars of Persepolis in Persia (erstwhile Iran) are deciphered. This involved several travellers and decipherers, spanning from 14th Century to 19th Century. They are all laymen in history and linguistics. Being ignorant about the history of these pillars, locals engaged in pillage of these structures for building purposes and/or in spoiling the ruins. Noting and observations of way-farers, led the group of learned men to decipher three languages. A simply small note by a European Friar, named Odorific(us), in his Travelogues in 14th C. inspired European travellers and instigated other European States to send ambassadors to Iran. They picked up the thread left by their predecessors. Method used by George F. Grotefend (a German born on June 9, 1775) was ridiculed as unscientific and his decipherment was rejected. Gottingen Academy of Sciences refused to publish his Paper, fearing of risking a bad name. His Paper saw the light of the day with the help of his personal friend A.H.L. Heeren, who published it in his book on Ancient World, as an Appendix. Others who followed Grotefend proved him to be correct.

Tulu Studies
Let the readers know that we are not historians in the real sense, i.e. learned ones, nor linguists. It is our inquisitiveness and interest that drives us to dabble.in the subject. It is for readers to reject or accept the postulations wholly or partially. Indifference by readers is discernible by the negligible comments or feed-backs coming forth. Note how the successive attempts to solve the mystery of inscriptions of Persepolis ruins culminated in adding up ‘materials in a new and substantially correct form’. It is a slow process but aimed at the purpose to leave materials for others to carry forward and improve. Consensus of opinion is possible only when a group of like-minded people – learned or otherwise – work together. The rediscovery of Babylonian and Assyrian languages (considered as ‘wonder of ages’) is made in Iran, away from those Lands. Let us rediscover our Land, called the Tulunadu, mention of which is found in place-names in travelogues of foreigners.

Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune
13th September, 2010

251. The ethnic Bijai : Bijapur

The Mangalore city area north of Kodialbail (the original ‘Kudla’) around KSRTC Bus station and Bharath Mall etc is known as ‘Bijai’ area, usually pronounced like ‘bijayi’ or ‘bejayi’. The word ‘bijay’ sounds like Bengali equivalent of ‘vijay’ (= victory) to begin with.

Have you ever wondered about the origin of this place name Bijai?

Bijai

The odd sounding place name can be analysed as Bija+ayi or Beja+ayi, where in ‘ayi ‘means spatial dimension. In general we may assume that ‘bija’ stands for seed or even cashew nut. However, this sounds somewhat mysterious as the rugged topography of the area might neither had represented any agricultural or seed area; nor cashew was documented as an ancient plant in Tulunadu.

Bijadi

There are other places along the coast that carry the ethnic prefix: Bija. For example,  Bijadi in coastal Kundapur Taluk, Udupi district.

Bijapur

Other analogous names include Bijapur, Bijayavada (Vijayvada), Bijaynagar (Vijaynagar), etc. While Bijapur again reminds of ‘bija’, the seed, ‘Bijayvada’ or ‘Bijaynagar’ may reminds us of the historical regal battles and victories against their less fortunate foes.
Interestingly, the Bijapur was known as 'Beja-pore' or 'Beja poor' during the British period.

Beja tribes & villages

If you look beyond the bija=seed theory, you shall find that there are numerous villages and towns around the world carrying the name of Beja (or Bija).There is a Beja vllage close to Mangalore,near Manjeshwara, Kerala. Similarly there is another ‘Beja’ village in Ludhiyana district of Punjab.There may be more such villages and hamlets, but these examples in different language zones of India may help us to visualize the regional spread of this particular ethnonym Beja.

Similarly, you shall find villages or towns named Beja (or Bija, Bejai, Bejala, Bejar, Bejak Bejan, Bejaja etc) in diverse countries of the world like Pakistan, Latvia, Laos, Brazil, Guinea Bissau, Portugal , Columbia, Spain and Tunisia. These villages were named after a nomadic pastoral tribes known as ‘Beja’, that originally lived in African zone between Red sea and River Nile , in Sudan  to Egypt and migrated during the past history to diverse regions of the world.

According to Encyclopaedia Brittanica the Beja tribes are ca.4000 BC old .They speak Bejawi or Bedawi language, occupy mountain country between Red sea and River Nile.They were archers in historical armies.

These data suggest that these nomadic Beja tribes   originally from Sudan Ethiopia and adjoining regions of Africa migrated during the history to different parts of the world including southern India and Tulunadu. It is also possible that these were related to the Beda tribes (Beja>Beda) of India, considering that their language ‘Bejawi’ is also known as ‘Bedawi’.

Beja is also the name of a former princely state and its capital in Himachal Pradesh in northem India.

In Bejja village near Moodambail, Manjeshwara, Kerala, there is a Bejja guttu. The name ‘Bijja’ or ‘Bejja’ also exists as a tribal proper name among Badaga and several other south Indian tribes. Bijja and Bejja surnames still exist in India (and also other countries). ‘Bijjala’ was the name of the Kannada King during the life and times of social reformer Saint Basaveshwara (Basavanna). Similarly, Bijja Mahadevi was the name of a Lingayath nun.

Similarly, the Tulu proper name ‘Becha’ (as in ‘Bechanna’) of yester years appears as a fossil variant of the tribal name Beja. In Orissa, we find proper names like 'Biju' (for example,Biju Patnaik).

In view of these, the Bijai place name of Mangalore or Bijadi of Kundapur or even Bijapur or Vijayavada , like other hosts of 'Beja' village names, may actually represent ancient colonies of Beja tribes in southern India. The ancient Beja tribes that left their signature ethnic names as fossil imprints in our place names, now totally forgotten in our cultures and regions, have obviously been seamlessly assimilated during the history into various Tulu Kannada and other Indian communities.

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Bejjara = Vajra

A curious endpiece worth pondering over:

H. Vishwanath has pointed out the relevant word ‘Bejjara’. Incidentally, ‘Bajjara’, the Pali /Prakrit word, has been considered as ‘tadbava’ (derivative) of the Sanskrit word ‘Vajra’ (=diamond).

Africa, the original home of Bejja tribes, is also well known for large diamond deposits and mines. One possibility is that the diamond was introduced in India in the antiquity by the Bejja  immigrants from Africa. And hence the word ‘ bejj+ara’ ( stone brought by Bejja) might have been coined in the ancient Indian languages like Prakrit or their precursor languages.

In that case, the refined word ‘Vajra’ appears to have been derived from the earlier coined word ‘bajjara’ or ‘bejra’.

H Vishwanath provides some more interesting additions to the meaning and scope of word 'Bejja':

'Bejja' (Sanskrit Vejja) means 'hole'.  Bejja localities apparently were in a hole-like  or narrow strip of land in between two hills. 

Bejjawada (Sanskritised Vijayawada) possibly got its name because of the narrow passage of Krishna river between two hills, forming a bejja, that is is a deep hole-like passage (Ref: Bharatiya Sthalanama Patrike Vol.8, Page 43).  'Potare' in Kannada means a bejja/vejja in a tree.

The other meaning of Bejja is Baidya/Vaidya (Doctor). Baidya was a sect  dealing with herbal medicine among the Bhils (>Billava) or Beda tribes. It appears that these tribes were responsible for the introduction and evolution of herbal medicines and Ayurveda in India. The renowned Tulu heroes Koti and Chennaya were born to a lady called ' Devi Baideti' who was proficient in administering herbal medicines.

In Bengali also bejja means a doctor.

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250. From ‘OLA SAVARI’ to ‘VARASARI’

 A decorated Bhoota (Spirit) with attendants, [Courtesy: :www.Mangalore.com]

Words, in any language, are outcome of an idea, experience (mental and physical), objects and events. Physical experience includes seeing and hearing. Sounds, that resemble those associated with an object or action to be named, becomes an onomatoepic word – an outcome of seeing and hearing. Besides having their own and original meanings, some of the words have acquired or derived meanings.


Varasari
‘Varasari’, an antique word in Tulu, was engaging my mind for quite some time.
If one had spent ones childhood in Tulunadu, one would have heard some of the following phrases or idiomatic usages in Tulu language:
1) Admonition from elders: “Mulpa varasari malpochhi, pidayi po_du gobbule” (Meaning: Don’t run here and there nor make noise here. Go and play outside). ‘Varasari ‘here means noisy movements to and fro and in all directions, creating obstruction to elders in doing their work.
2) Unkemptness and disorder: “Illada varasaridu odegula povera aapuji” (Meaning: Things of the house are lying here and there, making the place untidy. Putting them in order takes so much of time that I am not finding time to go out).
3) Disunity in a house: Sentence at point (2) may also mean disunity in a house on account of chaos. Mark this statement: “Illada varasariye muggyuji.” (There is no end to disturbing activities in the house).

Spirit worship
Narrating a nostaliagic childhood episode may not be out of place. I take you way back to about 65 years to Hosabettu, then a sleepy coastal village without much modernity creeping in its stride. The Primary School was nestled between a verdant ‘Bailare’ (a stretch of low-lying, water-logged agricultural land) in the East and greenery all around with cashew, mango, coconut and casuarinas trees. A spacious ‘Goda’ (=gymnasium) – open on all sides - was standing on the North. Teacher (in charge 2 to 3 classes in those days) used take out pupils to this Goda for memorising the Tables, teaching numbers and letters, to be written on sandy surface. When teacher was late or absent from class, children used to play a game, having relevance to Bhoota (Divine Spirit) worship. Hosabettu has a Jarandaya Shrine where a 3-day Nemotsava is taking place in nights, concerning Jarandaya, Jumadi and Banta/Bunta Spirits. Fag end of the annual ceremony, a game is played with ‘Marlu Bhoota’ (In some Temples or Bhoota shrines ball games are played in adjoining agricultural field).
Taking a cue from this game, children used to play a game of ‘Marlu Bhoota’. The boy, who was always made to play the part of ‘Marlu Bhoota’, was Laxman (son of ‘Mulyada Poojari'1 Jannu). A fake impersonator holds a stick or some other twigs, while Other boys act as teasers and tormentors. Leader of the group entreats the Bhoota by saying “Marlu Bhoota pattodu pannaga pattodu, budodu pannaga budodu” (The mad spirit should possess the impersonator when told to do so and leave his body when told to leave). On beating of drums (i.e. brass plates carried to school for midday meal) and shrill music of wind instruments (made of coconut leaves) the impersonator starts to shiver as if he is possessed by the spirit and beats whosoever comes near him for teasing in words and in action, i.e. making fun of the spirit by throwing whatever things comes to hand. This game turns violent when either impersonator or any teaser is badly hurt. When it turns to personal fighting, the spirit is pacified and told to stop manifesting. Movements, shouting, swearing and littering the area with dried coconut or palm leaves, twigs and shreds of roof-tiles bring home the meaning of ‘Varasari’. (Note: In the real ritual, burning torches are used).

Ritualistic Connection
‘Varasari’ is a variant of ‘Ola Savari’ – a terminology connected with ritualistic worship of Divine Spirits of Tulunadu. Tulu Lexicon gives various versions of ‘Olasavari’, such as ‘Olasari, Varasari, Olasaru, O_lasiri (Oolasiri) or Vaalasiri’. It means “A ritual of Bhoota worship in which the Bhoota impersonator goes out of the arena in procession.”

A decorated Bhoota in trance.(courtesy: www)

‘Bhootaradhane ’ – an Overview
Bhootaradhane (Divine Spirit Worship) is a time-honoured ritualistic tradition of Brihad Tulunadu spread from Gokarn to Kasaragod (but now limited to Dakshina Kannada and Udupi Districts of Karnataka). Northern parts of Kerala, which includes Kasaragod District, evince Bhootaradhane, in the form of Theyyam.
There is a subtle difference between ritual and religion. Religion is a system of specific beliefs, based on doctrines or theologies, and revelations, involving the worship of supernatural forces or beings. Rites or rituals are a set of symbolic actions, formulated by a religion and/or Religious Gurus (teachers) or by the traditions of an individual family, community or a society, comprising a village or cluster of villages (‘seeme ‘or ‘maagane’s). Religious rites are religion-centric and traditional rituals have landed down from pre-societies, centring around hero-worship; say of Kings and their chieftains after death (Compare this with Paraohs – Priest Kings - of Egypt). These traditional rituals are not falling into any specific religious category.
With Brahmanism taking root in Tulunadu and synchronising with Dravidian cultures, the Bhoota shrines are located inside main Temples of Vedic Gods or vice versa. Being super-natural beings and remaining attendant to main deities, they protect their devotees. Hence there is conceptual statement in Tulu: “Deveregu dooteru, nambina manushyaregu daateru” (=Attendants to God and Benevolent to believing masses). Fear for these Divine Spirits – Upholders of Dharma - is more than that for main deities.
Communities of a region take part in Bhoota rituals, irrespective of religious leanings. All aspects of the life, teachings and after-death-life of great and noble historical figures are represented in these rituals. Their frailties notwithstanding, these legendary figures attained divinity after death. There are several historical figures, such as Chamundi/ Ma(h)ankaldi, Posappe, Panjurli, Maisandaya, Ullaya, Ullalthi, Jarantaya, Jumadi (Dhoomavati), Babbarya (Bobbarya), Vishnumurti, Varte, Kallurti, Kalkuda, Guliga, Koddabbu (Koteda Babbu), Koti & Chennaya (twins), Siri, Abbaga, Daraga, Pilichamnundi, Nandigona and so on. Saga of these heroes are perpetuated in lengthy oral poems, popularly called as PaDdanas, some of which are now documented. These PaDdanas are enacted during annual or specific festivals, called by different names, eg. Kola, (Dharmada) Nema, Tambila, Agelu, Bandi, Jatra, Maime, Mechchi, Kajambu, Jaalata, Kenda Seve, Ottekola, Panarata, etc.

There are some variations in ritualistic actions and text of songs due to regional difference and dearth of traditional singers with full knowledge of these orally handed down epic songs.
There are classified glossary evolved through past and present societies regarding flag-hoisting, special gestures, words for invoking and entreating deities, assurance given by oracles, specific make up and ornamental dress, dances to special music according to the sequence of ritual performance, pompous procession of initiated persons, called Poojaris, and dance performers, along with retinue of high-ranked persons (‘Gurikaras’, i.e. community leaders, and other dignitaries) to the beating of drums and blowing of trumpets and wind pipes.

Purpose of worship
1. Obliging religious and traditional beliefs of individuals, groups or societies, as a mark of respect and submission - an awe-inspired reverence.
2. Satisfying emotional needs during personal discomfitures, fears, and epidemics.
3. Spiritual needs.
4. Social solidarity: It is an occasion to extend and confirm social bonds by sharing common beliefs. It creates and strengthens a sense of group identity.
5. Social justice: Strengthening moral education. Right and wrong deed by an individual, group or a village is decided at the instance of divine spirit with tacit approval/acceptance of main deity of a particular temple.

Ola savari, Olasari to Varasari
Annual rituals ,as aforesaid, last for a day or two or three days, except ‘Deyi Nalike’, as in vogue in region to region. The first day is inauguration by taking ‘Bhandara’ from dedicated store-house and raising the dedicated flag (Kodi eruni). ‘Angana Seve’ (cleaning, decorating the pandol and invoking the deities (Daivas) through initiated persons, called Poojaris. The second or third day is called the ‘Ola Savari’ It is the inter-action of Poojaris and Trance-drama performers (impersonators). Tradition holds that these dance performers are from Nalike, Pambada, Parava, etc. They are artists, fashioned out of customs, to sing and dance according to epic lore and are sustained by Temples, Chieftains, village groups and communities.
‘Deyi Nalike’ is a composite Bhoota ritual in a royal household, or a big family for offering annual oblations for many Bhootas, one after another. This festival lasts for several days with rituals relevant to each and every Bhoota, dance and entertainments.

Invocation stages
There are different stages of invocation of Divine Spirits in these traditional dances. Following will give an idea about this ritual to an outsider.
Osaya Sandi (=Invocatory singing): A particular PadDana (Folk Epic) is sung by the Bhoota impersonator or mostly by his family in front of the idol or mask of the concerned Bhoota in order to invoke a Bhoota. ‘Tembare’ (a small drum) is beaten by Paratti (wife of Parava). There is saying: “Tembare pandavodu paratti, kola kattodu parave (Paratti has to beat the small drum, Parava has to dance). It means, essentially each one has to do his job assigned to him.
Siri singara: Auspicious costume, made of tender leaves of coconut. Leaves (in one piece) are split into thin strings and this piece is wrapped up from waist downwards. There are specific steps for this ‘siri kattuni’ dance with music. Bhoota impersonator goes into trance with this sacred dress. This is called ‘Siri singarada echchi’ (Dance-movements with ‘siri singara’ until being possessed by the particular Spirit).
Gaggarada Echchi: ‘Gaggara’ is a big boat-shaped anklet with jingling bells set inside. ‘Beetal leaf with nut’ is given to impersonator as a mark of permission to wear the ‘gaggara’. This permission is called as ‘gaggarada boolya’. Bhoota impersonators (mostly two – one for main deity and the other for his attendant) make several rounds to and fro, swerving, frolicking and leaping, running and making gestures to assembled dignitaries in front row or seated in assigned structure opposite to the pandol, where masks (muga) of deities are adorned, seeking permission for tying the jingling anklet. They dance according to changing music tunes till getting possessed or going into trance.

Ani kattuni: Ani is a kind of ornamental, halo-like structure made of areca spathes, cloth, tender coconut leaves or metal materials and worn on the back by the Bhoota dancer. Dance with ‘ani’ (crown) is a last leg of awe-inspiring Bhoota dance. There is inter-action with initiated Poojaris, conversation between the possessed impersonator and Gurikaras (in case of family festival, chief householder), show of approval, annoyance by shouting, disapproval by banging the ‘jeetige’(= a torch, made of cloth wrapped round the end of a stick in metal cup and soaked in oil, usually held before the deity or priest) to his chest every now and then, pacification of deity by entreating words (madu panpini) by Gurikaras and dignitaries, representing many castes). There is a pompous and tumultuous procession around the main shrine. There is a ‘badikara bali or badikara paravuni’ dance ritual, involving initiated person (Paatri) holding the ‘badikara’ (= a pot containing auspicious objects) and Bhoota impersonator.
Madipu: Prayer by devotees and enquiry, settlement and assurances by Bhoota impersonator in trance by giving ‘gandha prasada’. After ‘madipu’, Bhandara is taken back to the ear-marked store room.

Conclusion
‘Sari’ means to move. In short, inside and outside to and fro movements of invocated Divine Spirits, with frisking, leaping, swerving, gesturing, etc. to the deafening music of wind instruments and drums are called Olasari and Varsari during Kola or Nema Festival. Pell-mell created is awesome.
Divinity in man is not an accident. It is there during life and after death. The concept of Supreme Soul and ramification of this Soul in all creations of the Universe is a universal truth. This truth has no religion. With simplicity of living, depending on the Nature, man lived as a child of the Nature. With technological developments, man lost his touch with the Nature, thereby separating himself with Divinity. Revelation of one’s true nature comes in one’s life with concentration of thought process, that is ‘Self Enquiry’ – ‘Who am I?’ He becomes a man of God then and there and for ever, with qualities of God himself. This is how tradition of adoring the Divine Spirits has come to stay. Connecting oneself with this Divine Supernatural beings is an expression of humanity, i.e. acceptance of divinity pervading in all human beings. This traditional worship becomes a culture of a society, as is evident in Tulunadu.

Notes:
1.‘Moolyada Pujari means an initiated man in charge of the images or masks (pāpe) of Spirit-Gods, armoury, ornaments and other things. He is entrusted with performing Pooja and maintaining the cleanliness of the Shrine (Daiva Sana) where periodical Kola ceremonies are held.
2. Readers may refer to older Posts No.32 (Origin of animal and spirit worship), 62 (Characterization of spirits of Tulunadu ), 94 (Antiquity of Siri) and 233 (Panjurli).
3. Thanks to Tulu Lexicon for documenting the words, phrases and idioms concerning this ritualistic art-form – Bhootaradhane.

20.08.2010                                                                                                                      -  H. Vishwanath